Contributed by:
Action research is a methodology that has been found to be valuable as a problem-solving tool. It can provide opportunities for reflection, improvement, and transformation of teaching.
The purpose of this study is to better understand these claims about the benefits of action research. Several research questions stand out: How is action research experienced by teachers? Is it beneficial and practical for teachers who use it? How are action research findings typically validated? What factors influence whether teachers are able to continue to practice action research? What kind of change has it initiated for teachers? And, how does action research focused on improving student achievement affect high-need students?
1.
ACTION RESEARCH IN MATHEMATICS EDUCATION:
A STUDY OF A MASTER’S PROGRAM FOR TEACHERS
by
Sarah Ultan Segal
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
Mathematics
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozeman, Montana
April 2009
2.
©COPYRIGHT
by
Sarah Ultan Segal
2009
All Rights Reserved
3.
ii
APPROVAL
of a dissertation submitted by
Sarah Ultan Segal
This dissertation has been read by each member of the dissertation committee and
has been found to be satisfactory regarding content, English usage, format, citation,
bibliographic style, and consistency, and is ready for submission to the Division of
Graduate Education.
Dr. Maurice Burke
Approved for the Department of Mathematical Sciences
Dr. Kenneth Bowers
Approved for the Division of Graduate Education
Dr. Carl A. Fox
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STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE
In presenting this dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a
doctoral degree at Montana State University, I agree that the Library shall make it
available to borrowers under rules of the Library. I further agree that copying of this
dissertation is allowable only for scholarly purposes, consistent with “fair use” as
prescribed in the U.S. Copyright Law. Requests for extensive copying or reproduction of
this dissertation should be referred to ProQuest Information and Learning, 300 North
Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106, to whom I have granted “the exclusive right to
reproduce and distribute my dissertation in and from microform along with the non-
exclusive right to reproduce and distribute my abstract in any format in whole or in part.”
Sarah Ultan Segal
April 2009
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D EDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to my father, Donald Ultan, who did not complete his
dissertation, but impressed upon me the value and importance of using my mind,
thinking, and obtaining my degrees. He lives on in my heart and always will. I would
like to also dedicate this to my family: William Bennett, my fiancé whom I met in the 8th
grade in California and discovered he too was in Montana, and to my son, Elliot Donald
Segal. Both of them work so well with me. I also dedicate this to and thank my mother
for putting up with me. Her love and affection stays steady. I appreciate all that she has
I would like to acknowledge Dr. Maurice Burke who has been a valuable role
model for me in the work I have done. I have high regard for him as a person and as a
thinker, and thank him for all his time! I would like to acknowledge Dr. Elisabeth
Swanson who has supported me through this process with the fellowship of CLTW,
making it all possible. And, deep appreciation to Jennie Luebeck for carrying to the ball
the last few laps! Lastly, I thank the rest of my committee, for putting in their valuable
time and effort on this dissertation, helping me complete my PhD. I think I have finally
completed what I needed to do. Thank you!
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation
under Grant No. 0119786. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations
expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the
views of the National Science Foundation.
The Center for Learning and Teaching in the West, funded by the National
Science Foundation (grant number 0119876) is a consortium of five
universities collaborating with tribal colleges and public school systems in Montana,
Colorado, and Oregon. The Center brings the varied expertise of scientists,
mathematicians, and educators to address current challenges in understanding and
improving student learning and achievement in science and mathematics from middle
school through college.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM..............................................................................1
Introduction.....................................................................................................................1
Context and Focus of the Study......................................................................................3
Statement of the Problem................................................................................................4
Research Questions.........................................................................................................5
Significance of the Study................................................................................................6
Limitations of the Study.................................................................................................8
Research Assumptions....................................................................................................9
Researcher’s Position & Hypothesis...............................................................................10
Variables........................................................................................................................10
Definition of Terms.......................................................................................................11
Organization of the Study.............................................................................................12
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE..............................................................................14
Introduction...................................................................................................................14
Description of Action Research....................................................................................14
History of Action Research...........................................................................................16
Educational Action Research........................................................................................17
Action Research for Teachers – Definitions, Models, and Examples...........................20
Model 1.....................................................................................................................21
Example 1.................................................................................................................21
Model 2.....................................................................................................................22
Example 2.................................................................................................................23
Model 3.....................................................................................................................23
Example 3.................................................................................................................24
How Action Research Differs From Other Types of Research.....................................26
Professional Development and Action Research..........................................................28
Validity..........................................................................................................................30
Example 1.................................................................................................................30
Criticism of the Validity of Action Research...........................................................32
Suggestions For Increasing Validity From the Literature........................................34
Summary of Findings on Validity............................................................................37
Benefit...........................................................................................................................37
Example 2.................................................................................................................37
Natural Consequences of Action Research That Provide Benefit............................40
Summary of the Findings on Benefit.......................................................................42
Practicality....................................................................................................................43
Example 3.................................................................................................................43
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TABLE OF CONTENTS – CONTINUED
Natural Consequences of Action Research that Increase Practicality......................47
Example 4.................................................................................................................49
Summary of the Findings on Practicality.................................................................50
Continued Practice........................................................................................................51
Summary of the Findings on Continued Practice.....................................................52
Conclusion....................................................................................................................54
3. METHODOLOGY.......................................................................................................57
Introduction...................................................................................................................57
Research Design............................................................................................................57
Population and Sample..................................................................................................60
Design of the Survey.....................................................................................................62
The Survey...............................................................................................................62
Pilot Survey.............................................................................................................64
The Survey.....................................................................................................................65
Plan for Rating the Capstone Projects...........................................................................68
Reliability of the Rating System...................................................................................71
Description of the Capstone Projects............................................................................72
Constructing the Interview Questions...........................................................................73
The Interviews...............................................................................................................74
Analysis of the Survey Data..........................................................................................77
Analysis of the Interview Data......................................................................................79
Results From The Pilot Survey.....................................................................................81
4. RESULTS.....................................................................................................................84
The Survey – Schedule and Results.............................................................................84
Results of The Survey..............................................................................................85
Background Information on the Participants...........................................................86
Survey Section 1: Benefit........................................................................................99
Qualitative Data - Benefit........................................................................................99
Survey Section 2: Practicality................................................................................101
Qualitative Data - Practicality................................................................................102
Survey Section 3: Validity.....................................................................................104
Qualitative Data - Validity.....................................................................................104
Survey Section 4: Continued Practice....................................................................105
Qualitative Data – Continued Practice...................................................................106
Survey Section 5: Change......................................................................................107
Responses to Other Questions................................................................................107
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TABLE OF CONTENTS - CONTINUED
Capstone Data as Part of the Selection of Interviews.................................................112
The Interviews – Schedule and Results......................................................................116
Interview Data........................................................................................................117
The Action Research Model...................................................................................118
Value.......................................................................................................................121
Community.............................................................................................................126
Change....................................................................................................................127
Validity and Reliability...........................................................................................132
Other Comments.....................................................................................................133
Conclusion..............................................................................................................134
5. CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................136
Answering the Research Questions.............................................................................138
Suggestions for Practice..............................................................................................147
Reflection and Limitations .........................................................................................149
Directions for Future Research...................................................................................151
Conclusion..................................................................................................................153
REFERENCES CITED....................................................................................................155
APPENDIX A: The Survey.........................................................................................163
APPENDIX B: Action Research Guidelines...............................................................173
APPENDIX C: Interview Questions............................................................................176
APPENDIX D: Interviews...........................................................................................180
APPENDIX E: Letters to Graduates............................................................................227
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1. Survey: Number of Questions by Type...........................................................63
2. Survey Questions Used for Interview Selection...............................................65
3. Graduates reporting two or more action research (AR) projects
40% or higher students eligible for free or reduced lunch, or both..................67
4. Rubric for Rating Capstones – 1.......................................................................70
5. Rubric for Rating Capstones – 2.......................................................................71
6. Survey Results for Quantitative Questions –
frequency of responses, averages, and standard deviation...............................92
7. Interview Selection.........................................................................................113
8. Selected Nine Interviewees Compared with Whole Group............................115
9. The Types of Action Research Projects Conducted.......................................140
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. Number of Years of Teaching Experience (x)
by Number of Graduates (y)..............................................................................86
2. Age Range of Graduates (x)
by Number of Graduates (y)..............................................................................87
3. Average of Responses by Graduate in Each Survey Section.............................90
4. The Overall Survey Average from Each Graduate.............................................90
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ABSTRACT
Action research is a methodology that has been found to be valuable as a
problem-solving tool. It can provide opportunities for reflection, improvement, and
transformation of teaching. The purpose of this study is to better understand these claims
about the benefits of action research. Several research questions stand out: How is action
research experienced by teachers? Is it beneficial and practical for teachers who use it?
How are action research findings typically validated? What factors influence whether
teachers are able to continue to practice action research? What kind of change has it
initiated for teachers? And, how does action research focused on improving student
achievement affect high need students?
For the past five years, forty-five teachers completing master’s degrees in
mathematics education at a northern Rocky Mountain land-grant university have been
required to conduct an action research project, referred to as their “capstone project.” By
studying this group of graduates, gathering both qualitative and quantitative data through
surveys and interviews, I have examined the effectiveness of action research. This data,
combined with graduates’ capstone projects, has provided partial answers to the above
questions, restricted to faculty-mediated action research within master’s programs for
mathematics teachers. The extent to which such action research projects impact teachers’
practices has not been investigated before.
While acknowledging that this research relied primarily upon self-reported data,
the results strongly support what the research literature generally asserts about action
research. (a) It is beneficial and often transformational for teachers as a professional
development tool by allowing them to engage in a focused study of their own practice.
(b) When done less formally it becomes more practical. (c) Communicating with others
in the field builds confidence in teachers as professionals. (d) It makes teachers more
actively reflective and more aware of their teaching and their students’ learning. (e) It is
effective in understanding and addressing the particular needs of high need students.
Continued practice was highly dependent on time and support for action research within
the school. Teachers often expressed the importance of having an action research
community while conducting their capstones.
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CHAPTER 1
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
In this chapter, a general introduction is given followed by an explanation of the
context and the focus of the study. The statement of the problem is then discussed and
the research questions are presented. A discussion of the significance of the study and its
limitations is provided. Research assumptions are described and the researcher’s position
is clarified. The hypothesis, variables, and the measures of variables are given, followed
by the definition of terms and an explanation of the organization of the study for the
chapters that follow.
Introduction
Action research is a methodology that is considered to be a valuable problem-
solving tool in most of the literature on action research. For the teacher in the classroom
it can provide opportunities for reflection and improvement, a testing ground for
improving the teacher’s practice. Implemented in this way, action research is also seen as
a personal transformational tool for a teachers’ professional practice. The purpose of this
study is to better understand these claims about the benefits of action research. Several
questions stand out as one delves into such an investigation: How is action research
experienced by teachers? Is it beneficial and practical for the teachers who use it? How
are action research findings typically validated? What factors influence whether teachers
are able to continue to practice action research if they have found it to be worthwhile?
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And, what kind of change has it initiated for teachers in their careers?
The North Central Regional Educational Laboratory defines action research as,
“inquiry or research in the context of focused efforts to improve the quality of an
organization and its performance. It typically is designed and conducted by practitioners
who analyze the data to improve their own practice. Action research can be done by
individuals or by teams of colleagues. The team approach is called collaborative inquiry.”
(NCRL, 2008, para. 1) This definition of action research will be assumed in this study.
For the past five years teachers completing master’s degrees in mathematics
education at a northern Rocky Mountain Land-Grant university have been required to
conduct an action research project, referred to as their “capstone project.” The capstone
project is based upon a classroom problem that is relevant to student achievement. The
underlying goals of the capstone project are to improve student achievement in the
teacher's classroom or to improve the teacher's understanding of the teaching and learning
process. The first step of a capstone project is a capstone proposal, which must be
approved by the student's graduate committee before work can proceed. The results of the
work are presented in a seminar or other suitable forum approved by the student's
committee. Approximately fifty teachers have completed these projects. In this
dissertation, I examine the group of graduates who completed their capstone projects
between 2003 and 2007. The extent to which their action research project impacts their
practice has never been investigated.
This master’s program in mathematics education is designed for teachers who
currently teach mathematics and who seek a master’s degree in mathematics education.
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The program was created with the goal of better equipping teachers in mathematical
content knowledge and in mathematical pedagogical knowledge. The capstone project,
which I refer to as faculty-mediated action research, is the only part of the program
considered in the present study. In faculty-mediated action research, students
collaboratively conduct teacher action research in a school setting at the university but it
can also be considered as professional development because teachers are collecting and
analyzing data that are used to inform practice, improve student learning, and encourage
reflection. In this approach, a faculty member works with each student, guiding him or
her in the design of the project and providing checkpoints along the way. The faculty
member provides support, guidance, expertise, and validation.
Context and Focus of the Study
Several themes emerge as important focal points from studying the literature on
action research: benefit, practicality, validity, continued implementation, and change in
teacher practices. Action research is claimed to be beneficial for teachers and their
students, and, when shared, the educational community. The literature discusses ways to
make action research more practical, and thereby more useful for teachers. Suggestions
are made for increasing the validity of one’s research such as collecting different types of
data and discussing with others in the field (Whitehead, McNiff, 2006). Because action
research requires significant time and effort, discussions on continuing to implement it
are included in the literature, especially if the initial project was externally funded.
Action research is described as transformational (Whitehead, McNiff, 2006), leading to
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permanent change in a teacher’s practice. Through a comprehensive survey covering
these topics, an examination of the action research capstone projects published online,
and in-depth interviews with program graduates, I investigate these themes as they
pertain to the students from this program.
Statement of the Problem
There is a growing body of research literature on action research. However, only
one reference was found on faculty-mediated action research, and yet it is used
throughout the country in many university programs investigated for this study. With the
faculty-mediated model, the teacher has more guidance and checkpoints in his or her
study than one would otherwise. It is a sound first experience with this kind of research
and is unique in that way. Practicing teachers are not always able to discuss their
research plan with a knowledgeable colleague. But in a faculty-mediated model they do,
and they are able to obtain guidance as well. The literature portrays action research as an
effective professional development strategy for improving teacher practices. But it is not
clear how teachers perceive it when used on a broad scale under the faculty-mediated
model. Also, teachers need relevant professional development, and action research
potentially offers exactly that. It is not clear what aspects of action research, at least
under the faculty-mediated model, teachers find to be most relevant.
Action research is portrayed in the literature as very beneficial, and as a useful kind of
professional development because of its’ direct applicability to a teacher’s classroom
practice. Since many professional development schools teach courses on action research,
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one goal of this project is to examine the faculty-mediated model of action research to
determine how it compares to the profile offered by the literature. This present study
follows up with teachers who have engaged in action research to ascertain how their
experiences compare with the literature, to see if teachers’ characterize action research as
a useful form of professional development, and to for universities to learn about the
programs they are teaching.
Research Questions
The research questions I am investigating are the following:
1. Under the faculty-mediated model, what types of action research projects do teachers
typically see as important and engage in within their specific educational settings?
2. How does the teacher researcher ensure that all aspects of the research design are well
aligned with the research questions? What standards of validity are appropriate for
action research in educational settings for teacher practitioners?
3. How do teachers benefit from action research?
4. How practical are the requirements placed on teachers to do it well?
5. In what ways do teachers continue engaging in action research, in the absence of
outside funding or faculty support?
6. How does teacher practice change as a result of doing action research?
7. How does action research affect teachers’ ability to address the needs of diverse or
high need student populations?
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Significance of the Study
A master’s program is often the most significant component of formal professional
development in a teacher’s career (Burke, 2008). Therefore, it is valuable to the research
field to investigate how theory and practice overlap in the professional development
context of master’s programs. Claims such as action research is ‘personally
transformational’, ‘it’s the best form of professional development’, ‘it builds
community’, and it ‘makes one more reflective’ are made throughout most of the
literature on teacher action research. But these claims have not been examined with
specific reference for the faculty-mediated model.
The goal here is to determine whether and how the impact on the teacher doing
action research is similar to the impact when action research is embedded in a master’s
program. If action research is a highly effective tool for K-12 and higher education, then
more could benefit from using it. At the same time many teachers don’t know it exists.
In this regard, it is critical to investigate ideas, practices, and experiences to see what is of
value, what is meaningful, and what truly makes a difference. This study contributes to
the body of knowledge on action research by providing much needed information about
the faculty-mediated model.
It is clear that many professional development schools recognize the value of
educating students in action research. An investigation conducted by this researcher
found many master’s programs in mathematics and science have an action research
component: University of Maryland, Washington, Southern Illinois, NYU, Illinois
Institute of Technology, North Dakota University, Texas Tech University, Purdue, Penn
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State, Hood College, Brown, Michigan State, Indiana University, Ohio University,
University of Virginia, University of Albany, George Mason, University of California at
Santa Barbara, and University of Missouri - to name a few. It is of great importance to
look carefully at faculty-mediated action research through the eyes of the teacher
researcher, in order to learn more about its effectiveness. By carefully examining
teachers’ experience with action research and determining how significant it has been in
the professional lives of the graduates of the master’s program in mathematics education,
we can learn more about the significant and lasting effects of action research.
Specifically, this study provides information on (a) how action research is and is
not beneficial for the teacher and the students, (b) how to make action research practical
so teachers can practice it, (c) how teachers typically ensure that their research is reliable
and valid, (d) the ability and inability of teachers to continue to practice action research
along with ideas for increasing sustainability, and (e) what changes in teaching practice
take place by doing action research. In this study, the types of action research that
teachers deemed productive in educational settings are described. Lastly, by questioning
how action research affects diverse students (defined to be students who are eligible for
free or reduced lunch) we can better find ways to reach and assist this group of students
as well. To be able to examine at an entire program of participants over a five-year
period is a valuable opportunity, and the results of this investigation may prove to be
important for all faculty-mediated action research programs.
Because a master’s program is such an important element of a teacher’s
professional development during his or her career, this research will contribute to the
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literature on professional development of teachers. While limited in scope, I believe this
study will provide valuable information. The mathematics department will benefit from
receiving feedback about the program. The science departments at this university have a
similar program that can benefit from this research as well. Further, similar programs in
terms of audience, design, and context at other universities nationally may benefit from
these findings. Other master’s or professional development programs may find this study
useful for their programs. Indeed, there is much to be learned about faculty-mediated
action research as an introduction to doing action research.
Limitations of the Study
A limitation of this study is that this group of teachers being examined has gone
through a specific graduate program in a relatively narrow time frame. Of the many of
people who use action research, this study looks at forty-five individuals. Also, many
teachers from this group have done action research only once so they have very limited
experience. Most teachers are too busy and they might not have time to explore action
research more fully in their teaching practice. Teachers have to make time while in this
program but there are no guarantees they will have time after they leave the program.
The focus here is a case study of one university program’s action research
component within a master’s program. While this program is primarily on-line, nearly all
of the students reside in the United States, and many in Montana. Instead of working
with highly experienced action researchers, this is a relatively inexperienced group, many
of whom will be reflecting on a first-time experience or an only experience. This
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population is predominately Caucasian. However, these limitations will also help to
address specific issues related to this population and to their experience level. This study
could lead to further research with other groups in terms of experience, diversity, region,
Another limitation is that this study is based on self-perceptions from the teacher,
to a large extent. If the distances allowed me to visit these geographically dispersed
teachers’ classrooms, the site visits would help bring more valuable data to the research,
more importantly, the data would not be a self-perception.
Research Assumptions
One research assumption was that this group of students would be responsive,
willing, and able to be examined. While this is an assumption to be cautious about, I
found that in working with the pilot group of science education graduates, they were very
willing and responsive. The pilot group consisted of an intentional sample of recent
graduates. These assumptions were appropriate because the research group was
responsive and willing to participate in the survey and interviews. Also assumed is that
participating teachers would trust that their answers would be kept anonymous so they
feel comfortable in being honest. Lastly, I assumed that participating teachers would
have useful things to share about action research, even though their comments would
often be based on only one experience. These graduates would also provide a collective
perception that may agree or disagree with the literature.
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Researcher’s Position and Hypothesis
My position in this research project is one of inquiry and confidentiality. I am
biased to the extent that my review of the literature on action research left a certain
impression. I wanted to investigate this further. I am examining one case, the action
research component of a single teacher education program. I do not know the graduates
in this study, and their participation will remain completely confidential. I am not
involved in the master’s program in any way. I know several of the professors who teach
in the master’s program, and I am not hesitant to inform them of all the outcomes of this
research, good or bad. The results will be based on observations from the surveys,
capstone projects and interviews. My position is the same as if an outside evaluator was
looking at the program, except that I am acquainted with several of the professors who
work in the master’s program. Moreover, some of these professors are reviewing and
evaluating my dissertation work. While I have read supporting literature for action
research, my position is one of inquiry to see what the graduates’ experiences have been
and how they align with the literature.
My hypothesis is that action research appears to be a problem-solving tool that
changes practice and increases confidence and effectiveness in one’s own practice.
Variables
The graduates included in this study are fifteen pilot students that participated in a
pilot survey, and 45 graduate students who graduated between 2003 and 2007 in the
program I have examined. I understand that when asking participants to express their
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views and their recollections, answers can vary and are limited in that they offer one
perspective. Also, perceptions can change over time and are not the most reliable form of
data gathering. However, by surveying forty-five views and recollections I hope to find
some dominant trends and viewpoints.
Definition of Terms
1. Action Research is inquiry or research in the context of focused efforts to improve the
quality of an organization and its performance. Typically, it is designed and
conducted by practitioners who analyze the data to improve their own practice.
Action research can be done by individuals or by teams of colleagues. The team
approach is called collaborative inquiry. (Graduate School of Education, George
Mason University, 2008)
2. Capstone Project at this university is an action research project, based upon a
classroom problem that is relevant to the student. The underlying goals of the
capstone project are to improve student achievement in the teacher's classroom or to
improve the teacher's understanding of the teaching and learning process. The first
step of a capstone project is a capstone proposal, which must be approved by the
student's graduate committee before work can proceed. The results of the work are
presented in a seminar or other suitable forum approved by the student's committee.
(Montana State University, 2008)
3. Faculty-Mediated Action Research is where students collaboratively conduct teacher
action research in a professional development school setting by collecting and
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analyzing data that are used to inform practice, improve student learning, and
encourage reflection (University of Maryland, 2004). Further, faculty-mediated
action research is overseen by faculty and has critical checkpoints in place to help
monitor the students.
4. High need student populations can be defined as possessing at least two or more of
the following characteristics: “(a) a high proportion of low-income families; (b) a
high proportion of minority students, including those with English as a second
language; (c) a low mean student test performance or a large performance variation,
with low-income and minority students over-represented at low performance levels;
or (d) inadequate teacher access to professional development and educational
resources due to location (rural and urban)” (National Science Foundation, 2008).
5. Professional Development is the opportunity offered to educators to develop
knowledge skills, approaches and dispositions to improve their effectiveness in their
classrooms and organizations. (Loucks-Horsley, 1996)
Organization of the Study
Chapter 1 provides an overview of the study, including background information
about action research and the need to study it further. Assumptions and limitations
inherent in the research design are described. The research questions are stated, and key
terms are defined.
In Chapter 2, relevant literature related to action research is discussed. Studies
and examples are organized under the categories of major themes that arose from the
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literature, the key elements of action research. The theoretical framework that guides the
study is depicted. Different models of action research are described and the five major
elements discussed in detail: benefit, practicality, validity, continued practice, and
Chapter 3 describes the pilot study and the actual study conducted. Participants,
data collection methods, instrumentation, and data analysis procedures used in this study
are discussed. The research questions are restated, and the results of the pilot study are
Chapter 4 details the results of the present study. Data from the survey, the
capstone projects, and the interviews are presented in detail and in summaries. Selection
of interviewees is also discussed.
Finally, Chapter 5 summarizes the study and provides conclusions. A discussion
of the implications of the findings for researchers, teachers, and university programs that
have an action research capstone project is included.
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CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
In this chapter action research and its historical background are described. This is
followed by an explanation and examples of what educational action research is,
particularly action research conducted by teachers. The differences between action
research and other types of research are discussed as well as how action research can be a
form of professional development. Finally some major themes that emerge from the
literature on action research - validity, benefit, practicality, and continued practice - are
described. The chapter concludes with critiques of action research and conclusions
regarding the connections between the current study and the broader scope of action
research that emerges from the literature.
Description of Action Research
There exists much literature on the subject of action research. It is written in the
contexts of various occupations such as education, health, social work, organizational
development, planning, architecture, and economic growth. After some background and
definitions, the focus of this review will be educational action research that considers
issues of validity, benefits, practicality and sustainability.
Since its inception in the work of Kurt Lewin in 1946, the meaning and purpose
of action research has taken on many forms:
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• “Action research is the study of a social situation with a view to improving the
quality of action within it.” (Elliot, 1991)
• “Action research is a form of collective self-reflective inquiry undertaken by
participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of their own
social or educational practices, as well as their understanding of those practices and the
situations in which the practices are carried out… The approach is only action research
when it is collaborative, though it is important to realize that action research of the group
is achieved through the critically examined action of individual group members.”
(Kemmis & McTaggart , 1988)
• “It is an approach to improve your own teaching practice. You start with a problem
you encounter. Faced with the problem, the action researcher will go through a series of
phases (reflect, plan, action, observe) called the Action Research Cycle to systematically
tackle the problem. Usually you discover ways to improve your action plan in light of
your experience and feedback from students. One cycle of planning, acting, observing
and reflecting, therefore usually leads to another, in which you incorporate improvements
suggested by the initial cycle. Projects often do not fit neatly into a cycle of planning,
action, observation and reflection. It is perfectly legitimate to follow a somewhat
disjointed process if circumstances dictate.” (Center for Enhanced Learning and
Teaching, 2009, para. 4).
• Action research...aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an
immediate problematic situation and to further the goals of social science
simultaneously. Thus, there is a dual commitment in action research to study a system
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• concurrently with collaboration among members of the system in changing it in
what is together regarded as a desirable direction. (Gilmore, Krantz, and Ramirez, 1986)
• Action research is also called other names such as: participatory research,
collaborative inquiry, action learning, and contextual action research. All are variations
on the same theme. In essence, action research is a form of problem solving: a problem
is identified to work on, with the aim to improve or to solve it. The researcher gathers
information on the problem and tries out new procedures or makes some other change in
practices to see if they result in a solution. Often, a group identifies a problem, does
something to resolve it, and assesses how successful their efforts were. If they are not
satisfied, they try again. This form of research has a history that is rooted in problem
solving in social and organizational settings.
History of Action Research
The term action research was introduced by social psychologist, Kurt Lewin. In
his paper, “Action Research and Minority Problems,” published when he was a professor
at MIT, he described action research as “a comparative research on the conditions and
effects of various forms of social action and research leading to social action” that uses “a
spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding
about the result of the action.”(Wikepedia 2009, para. 3)
It is because of Kurt Lewin that action research was associated with research
where the goal was to promote social action through a democratic process and have
active participation of practitioners in the research decisions. Action Research flourished
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through the 1950’s under Stephen Corey at Teachers College, Columbia University
(Feldman, 1994). Later, in the 1960’s, action research was not as popular because it was
associated with radical political activism, and there were concerns about both the level of
rigor used and the training involved for those who lead action research projects (Stringer,
1999). In the 1970’s, action research reemerged under the influence of Laurence
Stenhouse and John Elliott in Britain. The emphasis shifted to that of practical
deliberation, focusing on human interpretation, negotiation and detailed descriptive
accounts in place of measurement and statistical analysis (Center for Enhanced Learning
and Teaching, 2009, background of action research). In the 1980’s action research
gained popularity once again, partly due to the work in Britain, but also because of the
tradition that was started by Lewin and Corey in the US (Feldman, 1994).
Groups doing action research include field workers, teachers, administrators, and
supervisors. The goal has been to change and improve practice. It is usually seen as a
group process enabling cooperative work to influence both thought and action among the
group members. Action research has become a form of research that describes how
humans and organizations behave and it has also become a change mechanism, helping
people and organizations reflect on and enact change (Reason & Bradbury, 2001). Since
its inception, there have been many key people studying action research. There are
hundreds of books on the subject and numerous web sites.
Educational Action Research
In educational settings there are a variety of action research methods available to
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use, depending on the group and the goals that are identified. It can involve a single
teacher investigating an issue in his or her classroom, a group of teachers working on a
common problem, a team of teachers working with others focusing on a school, or an
even larger group working on a district-wide issue. Ferannce (2000) classifies these
different types of action research as follows:
Individual teacher research usually focuses on a single issue in the classroom.
The teacher may be seeking solutions to problems of classroom management,
instructional strategies, use of materials, or student learning. The problem is one that the
teacher believes is evident in his or her classroom and that can be addressed on an
individual basis. The research may be such that the teacher collects data or might look at
student participation. One of the drawbacks of individual research is that it may not be
shared with others unless the teacher chooses to present his or her findings at a faculty
meeting, a presentation at a conference, or by submitting written material to a journal. It
is possible for several teachers to be working concurrently on the same problem with no
knowledge of each other’s work. The major focus of this dissertation is individual and
faculty-mediated action research.
Collaborative action research may include as few as two teachers or a group of
several teachers, along with others interested in addressing a classroom, a department, or
a school-wide issue. This issue may involve one classroom or a common problem shared
by many classes. Teachers may have support from individuals outside of the school, such
as a university or a community partner.
School-wide research focuses on issues common to everyone in the school. For
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example, a school may have a concern about the lack of parental involvement in activities
and is looking for a way to reach more parents to involve them in meaningful ways. Or,
the school may want to address its organizational and decision-making process. Teams,
from the school staff, work together to narrow the question, gather and analyze the data,
and decide on a plan of action. An example of action research for a school might be to
examine its state test scores to identify areas that need improvement and to determine a
plan of action to enhance student performance. Teamwork and individual contributions
to the goal are very important in this form of action research. Problems can easily arise
as the team tries to develop a process and make commitments to each other. Though
challenging, there is a sense of ownership and accomplishment in the results that come
from a school-wide effort.
District-wide research is more complex, utilizes more resources, and is shared by
more people. Issues can be organizational, community-based, performance-based, or
focused on decision-making processes. A district may choose to address a problem
common to several schools or to examine a problem of organizational management.
Potential disadvantages are the amount of documentation and communication required to
keep everyone in the loop and the work involved to keep the process in motion.
Collecting data from all participants requires a commitment from the staff to do their fair
share responsibilities and to meet agreed-upon deadlines for assignments. An advantage
is school reform and change built upon common understanding and inquiry. The
involvement of multiple groups can provide fuel for the process and create an
environment of interested and motivated members as well.
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There are different models used in the teaching profession for conducting action
research. By considering some of these prominent models and posing questions about
them, we can gain a better understanding of how and why to participate in this type of
Action Research for Teachers - Definitions, Models, and Examples
Allan Feldman provides a definition of action research. “Action research happens
when people research their own practice in order to improve it and to come to a better
understanding of their practice situations. It is action because they act within the systems
that they are trying to improve and understand. It is research because it is systematic,
critical inquiry made public” (Feldman, 2002, p. 240). Feldman explains that action
research can help to develop a professional community, illuminate the power of
relationships in educational situations, and help one recognize their own expertise.
Dr. Michael Brody, a professor at Montana State University, has overseen
numerous teacher action research projects in the field of science education. He states
that, “Action research is the reflexive process by which educators systematically study
their problems in order to guide, correct and evaluate their decisions and actions
regarding the improvement of teaching and learning in their individual professional
context. Action research is a collaborative, cyclical process of: strategic planning, action,
implementing the plan and observation, evaluation and self-evaluation, critical and self-
critical reflection on the results and change in social, cultural, political systems” (Brody,
Mills (2003, p. 4) gives the following definition of teacher action research:
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“Action research is any systematic inquiry conducted by teacher researchers to gather
information about the ways that their particular school operates, how they teach, and how
well their students learn. The information is gathered with the goals of gaining insight,
developing reflective practice, effecting positive changes in the school environment and
on educational practices in general, and improving student outcomes.”
In the research literature, it is clear that various models or working definitions of
action research exist. However, all of them capture the same concept, some have more
steps and articulate them more fully, but the essence of learning through action, gathering
data, reflecting on the outcomes, and reworking as needed exist throughout. Thus, for the
teacher or educator, a few models for doing action research are presented here:
Model 1
Identify the problem - find the general or initial idea
Evaluate the problem - observe, survey, investigate the problem
Make a recommendation – make a plan
Practice the recommendation – take the first action step, try it out
Reflect on the practice - evaluate the recommended practice or action step
Reevaluate if needed - modify the plan, take a second action step if needed i.e.
another iteration (Gorski, 2006).
Example 1
An example using this model was documented in a geology class where the
teacher noticed that the students were not very interested in the subject. The teacher was
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teaching out of the textbook, and his students were not performing well on the subject
exams. The problem was identified: as the lack of student interest in geology. An
evaluation was done, by examining test scores and work relative to other subjects. An
anonymous survey given to the students confirmed the proposed problem. The teacher
met with other geology teachers at the school to discuss this problem. A few
recommended doing some hands-on activities and field trips to interesting geological
sites or museums. The recommendation was made to take two geology field trips. The
practice took place. The teacher took his students on two field trips over the next month.
One was close to school grounds and the other was a trip to the local museum. The
teacher took notes, making observations after each field trip. A month later the teacher
gave an exam and the students performed better. He did a follow-up survey and found
that the interest level had gone up in geology. He felt he had positive results but did not
want to confirm any biases he might have and did not want to rely only on his survey and
impressions. After the field trips the teacher reflected on the actions, surveys, and the
grades students received. In his reevaluation of the problem he decided to try to have
three geology-based field trips that year, and to include more hands-on materials and
specimens in the class when learning about this subject. He continued to take notes on
student interest and student performance on this subject. Improvements in attitude,
interest, and achievement were made.
Model 2
Plan - Act - Observe - Reflect. This comes from Kemmis and McTaggart (1988).
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Example 2
An example using this model comes from two mathematics teachers, each of who
taught two sections of the same mathematics course. Both noticed that their first period
classes did not do as well as their second period classes. The first period classes were
early in the morning and early in the afternoon, respectively. The two teachers met and
made a plan to change the tests in their second periods, thinking that maybe the increased
performance was because students from the earlier period were sharing information with
students from the later period. The teachers acted by giving the new tests. They
observed the results. Their first period students still did not do better than their second
period students on the new tests. They reflected on this outcome and couldn’t understand
what might be causing this situation. In the next iteration, the teachers met with their first
period classes in an open discussion explaining that the earlier class was not doing as
well. Some students offered that they are tired and not yet fully engaged first thing in the
morning and just after lunch. Together, the class and the teachers decided to try a plan of
having some warm-up problems the first 10 minutes of class to get the students engaged
in and focused on doing mathematics. Both teachers found an improvement in the grades
by following this plan. The four classes became about equal in student performance.
This is an example where the teachers were misled by their biases and by working with
their classes found the real problem and a solution.
Model 3
Look - Build a picture and gather information. Define and describe the problem
to be investigated and the context in which it is set. Describe what all the participants
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(educators, students, faculty, etc.) have been doing.
Think - Interpret and explain. Analyze and clarify the situation. Reflect on what
the participants have been doing. Look at areas of success and any deficiencies, issues,
or problems.
Act - Resolve issues and problems. Judge the worth, effectiveness,
appropriateness, and outcomes of the activities. Act to formulate solutions to any
problems. Repeat the cycle as needed. (Stringer, 1999, p.18; 43-44;160)
Example 3
In this example, the school staff and faculty decided to gather weekly for an hour
during the school day. Because Fridays were early release days, an hour was designated
on this day for professional development. The principal and teachers were concerned
about the level of violence and misconduct in the school. Teachers brought data on
incidents that occurred in their classes. The principal shared other reports of problems
that came through her office. The staff and faculty looked at both sources of data. They
discussed the students who were clearly acting problematically. They tried to define and
describe the disruptive situations and the contexts in which they happened. Descriptions
of what all the participants (staff, students, and faculty) had been doing were written.
Next came thinking. The staff and faculty tried to interpret and explain these situations.
How much did these incidents have to do with the students, how much with the setting at
school, and what role did the situation itself play, i.e., were there triggers that happened
which set these students off? In analyzing and clarifying the incidents, suggestions were
made. Maybe these students felt marginalized, or maybe they needed extra attention,
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tougher rules and consequences, etc. Further reflection on what the teachers had been
doing revealed that perhaps the teachers were treating the troublemakers differently and
this was also exacerbating the situation. Looking at areas of success, they found that
when the students were closer in proximity to the teachers, the incidents did not happen
as often. The staff and faculty decided to try a few different plans. Action was taken.
The teachers and principal came up with unified procedures for misconduct and shared
these with all of the classes, so the students clearly understood the rules and that these
rules would be applied consistently. The school began a program of emotional and social
development. It included conflict resolution, and letters were sent home, informing
parents about the program and its goals. Half of the teachers tested an intervention that
brought the students who were acting up closer to them by appointing them their aides in
class. By having clear rules, providing education and outreach, and having the students
be teachers’ aides, resolutions to the problems were attempted. The staff and faculty
continued to meet weekly to share how the interventions were coming along. They found
that the teachers who made the problem students their allies had better results than those
who did not. This was seen in attitudes, performance, and the frequency of incidents with
these students. In judging the worth, effectiveness, appropriateness, and outcomes of
these activities (rules, education, outreach, and aides) the faculty and staff decided to
have aides in all their classes. The weekly faculty and staff meetings continued,
providing a time and place to discuss and collaborate on problems that arose in the
All three models capture the essence of action research and it is possible to choose
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from any of them. They all fit with Ferrance’s classifications; so whether a teacher, a
group, a school, or a district engages in action research, all of these models can be
appropriate. An advantage of action research is that the project and how elaborate it is
depends on who is conducting it and what they are doing. It is a customized
methodology that can be kept quite simple or become very elaborate depending on those
involved and how they want or need to proceed.
How Action Research Differs From Other Types of Research
Action research differs from other types of research in at least four ways. First, it
embeds the researcher into the practices of the people involved. The teacher-researcher is
inclined to learn more and be more willing to apply what he or she learns, when they do
something themselves. So action research has a good chance of changing teacher
practice. Second, action research has a social dimension often not seen in other forms of
research. The research takes place in everyday situations and is aimed at improving
everyday problems in the classroom or in the school. Third, the initiating researcher does
not need to remain completely objective. They can openly acknowledge their biases to
other participants. Fourth, this type of research is more likely to have lasting effects on
the group involved because often the group is involved in the change that is taking place.
Like behavior modification, practice helps pave the way to a new method or assists in
enabling the change that is desired.
John Elliot argues that educational action research has some features not present
in other forms of research: “It has a pedagogical aim which embodies an educational
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ideal and which all those participating are committed to realizing. It focuses on changing
practice to make it more consistent with the pedagogical aim. It gathers evidence about
the extent to which practice is consistent or inconsistent with the aim. In identifying
inconsistencies between aspiration and practice, it problematises the assumptions and
beliefs (theories) tacitly embodied in the latter. It involves teachers in a process of
generating and testing new forms of action for realizing their aspirations, and thereby in
reconstructing their practical pedagogical theories. It is a pedagogical process
characterized by teacher reflexivity. From an action research perspective, teaching is a
form of research and vice versa”. (Elliot, 1994, p.136)
As with any type of research, problems exist with action research as well. Shirley
Grundy (1994) explains that it is necessary to understand that the improvement of the
quality of education is a responsibility for the school community as a whole. The
importance of school community will come up again in the findings that school
environment is key to sustained action research. It is not sufficient to think of such
improvement as a collection of the work of individual teachers doing their own action
research. She also argues that this kind of research offers a set of principles upon which
the work of improving the learning environment of a school can progress. She considers
some examples of whole school action research initiatives that include possibilities and
problems associated with school level action research. She finds that there can be
problems associated with state-initiated action research projects. Like any research it is
important to consider the possible outcomes from a variety of different perspectives and
to think critically about the impact on those involved.
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In conclusion, Grundy states, with an emphasis on scientific study, the teacher-
researcher is not conducting general professional practice, consulting, or daily problem
solving. It is very important to study the problem systematically and to make certain that
the intervention is informed by theoretical considerations. Much of the researcher’s time
needs to be spent refining the methodological tools to suit the needs of the situation.
Collecting, analyzing, and presenting data in ongoing, cyclical iterations is part of the
work involved. These are the components that are critical in conducting accurate action
Professional Development and Action Research
In doing a web search for literature on professional development and action
research it is immediately evident that a plethora of books exists on the subject. Yet, it
appears these books have not made it into the hands of as many administrators or teachers
as would be useful and beneficial.
At an international conference on teacher research, Frances Rust (professor,
Department of Teaching and Learning at New York University) argued that action
research or teacher research is the “best form of professional development I have ever
been involved in.” By making time for action research in busy teachers’ schedules, this
treats teachers as professionals and stresses that we need to do that. When teachers are
involved in their own problem solving inside their own classrooms the gains are better
and greater. Whether doing action research or teacher research, the distinction is merely
a matter of semantics since both inform and aim to improve practice and the teacher
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learns to ask questions.
North Central Regional Educational Lab states that, evaluation of professional
development efforts need not be a terribly complicated process requiring the assistance of
outside experts. Mullins (1994) notes that teachers, counselors, and other professional
staff can provide important information concerning the appropriateness of topics and the
effectiveness of staff developers. Action research is an example of a powerful evaluation
process that typically can be conducted by the school faculty with little or no outside
assistance. Calhoun (1994) suggests a five-phase evaluation cycle: (1) selecting an area
or problem of collective interest, (2) collecting data, (3) organizing data, (4) analyzing
and interpreting data, and (5) taking action based on this information. Data is then
collected again to determine the effectiveness of these efforts.
Further, David Townsend (2000) proclaims that action research allows teachers to
engage in professional development, model problem solving for their students and their
colleagues, prepare excellent records of their professional development plans, and
develop high levels of expertise in selected areas of curriculum, instruction and
organization. It’s a proven way for teachers to take greater ownership of their continuing
education and their school and district professional development agendas.
In Rock & Levin (2002) research investigated how collaborative action research
projects affected five pre-service teachers' professional development while working with
on-site teacher educators within a professional development school. Data from
interviews, conferences, journals, action research, student writings, and field notes
indicated that these experiences helped pre-service teachers gain valuable insights about
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themselves as teachers, students, curriculum, teaching, and teacher roles and
responsibilities. The study found that collaborative action research projects enhanced
pre-service teacher development in professional development schools.
We now turn to the themes that emerged in the literature: validity, benefit,
practicality, and continued practice.
Validity
Example 1
In Feldman’s paper, “Erzberger’s Dilemma: Validity in Action Research and
Science Teachers’ Need to Know”, he describes a group of physics teachers who meet
regularly to discuss their teaching, their knowledge of physics, and to engage in a
systematic inquiry of their teaching. One of the teachers, Erzberger, is paying close
attention to what she has asked her students to do and how they’ve responded to her
assignments and requests. She feels successful but she wants to know whether what she
is doing differently this year is more effective than what she has done in the past. Her
dilemma is, “The data that she collects, or that others collect for her do not meet the
warrants for validity that she expects from her work in the physical sciences. She is
caught in a void between the uncertainties of the observations made in practice and the
demands that she puts on propositional statements before she will accept them as
knowledge. The dilemma that she is faced with is that she wants to inquire into her
practice to gain a better understanding of her educational situation and to get better at
what she does, but yet finds teacher-research, and particularly action research, inadequate
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to the job. Why should she attempt to be more systematic? What does she gain from
interviewing students or analyzing tapes of her lessons?” (Feldman, 1994, p. 5) This
dilemma is not unique to Erzberger and gets at the problem many teachers face.
Feldman continues to describe this predicament as being driven by a “need to
know” on the part of the teacher. For the teacher-researcher there is a strong “need to
know” regarding the work they do. They seek both new understanding of their
educational situations and valid reasons for their actions (Feldman, 1994). Teachers feel
a “need to know” in order to pursue good practices. Many teachers are concerned about
what to do, how to do it, and have a desire to increase the intellectual, political, and moral
growth of their students.
Feldman discusses the challenge, “how to do this in a way that adequately tests
the hypotheses with limited data about a highly particularized and fluid situation” (i.e.
teaching) (Feldman, 1994, p. 8). According to Winter teachers engaged in research
collect data which they use to gain new understanding of their educational situations and
to have defensible reasons for their actions (Feldman, 1994). One problem is that if the
sample size is small, it may undermine the value of any conclusions. He claims this is a
problem if one is using a positivistic epistemology (theory of knowledge which assumes
that reality is objective against which researchers can compare their claims and ascertain
How can a teacher prove something if the sample size is small? The teacher-
researcher stands to be criticized. Feldman suggests that perhaps this is not the best
epistemology for the action researcher to use. Maybe the goal is less, “prove to others
based on large numbers,” and more, “show and experience improvement where needed
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and share this experience with others”. It is therefore a problem to use methodological
criteria from other fields of research that are not an appropriate fit.
Criticism of the Validity of Action Research
There is a perception that action research lacks rigor. Keating discusses a belief
that exists about teachers not being qualified to design objective studies with the clear
direction that is needed (Keating et al., 1998). As Feldman and others so eloquently
discuss, part of the beauty of action research is that it does not need to be objective in this
way and that teachers are perfectly qualified to conduct this kind of research. Teachers,
in fact, are exceptionally well situated to carry out action research. Learning to design
studies with clear directions is something that any practitioner learns with time and
Toulmin (1982) argued that studies should be formed from positions that are
rationally warranted, reasonable or defensible, i.e. well founded rather than groundless
opinions. The examples of action research discussed in this chapter, made sense, were
reasonable, defendable, and well founded. All had very clear outcomes that were not
based on groundless opinions.
Isaac and Michael (1987) noted that action research lacks scientific rigor because
its internal and external validity is weak ... with little control of independent variables.
They discuss the issues of internal and external validity.
In summary of the previous results, action research is best not viewed under the
same light as other forms of research where the goal is to prove a result that is
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reproducible. Part of the advantage of this type of research is that it does depend on the
particular group and it is timely. Since the researcher does not have to prove something
is right or wrong or reproducible, a collective effort is legitimate in obtaining progress.
Further, if a teacher is trying to improve their own practice or their students learning,
some of these issues of validity are not appropriate. Thus, action research can be
customized for the individual, the group, the school, or the district to make progress on
pertinent issues facing them.
In a similar criticism, Applebee (1987) suggests that teachers are part of, rather
than removed from, the context and therefore lack objectivity. Applebee’s point about
objectivity has been addressed earlier in that it’s okay to not be completely objective.
There is benefit too in not being totally removed from the situation you are studying. The
three criticisms above come from Keating et al.’s article.
It is important, to counter these concerns, and any others, by assisting teachers in
acquiring direction in the process of doing research. This can be obtained through course
work, in-service training, and by guiding the experience. Teacher preparation programs
are ideal situations in which to provide this training (Keating et al. 1998).
The literature is quite strong in its support of the idea that action research is
valuable and could even be a critical piece in elevating the teaching profession to a new
and much needed rank in American society. In Japan, teaching holds greater status,
higher pay, and teachers actively engage in improving their practice through
collaborative, reflective, group effort and meetings (Stigler & Hiebert, 1999). Action
research appears to help improve the experience and outcomes for teachers and their
students. If enough teachers engage in action research, maybe our society could see a
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real benefit, not from the top down, but from the people in schools, who know best the
problems they face and how they might fix them given the opportunity. Perhaps, action
research provides the right tools for fixing problems in the classroom. Working with
experienced people makes a difference too, especially when learning how to engage in
action research for the first time.
Suggestions for Increasing Validity From the Literature
Patti Lather suggests constructing research designs that demand vigorous self-
reflexivity. Four ways to encourage this are: triangulation, construct validity, face
validity, and catalytic validity (Lather, 1991). Triangulation involves using multiple
sources of data and multiple perspectives. The theory is that if you look at something
from a few different angles, you will see a clearer and more accurate picture. Construct
validity refers to awareness by the researcher of the ways in which theories and other
constructs are created. Face validity means realizing that what is being described or
explained rings true. And catalytic validity represents the degree to which the research
process focuses and reorients participants toward knowing the situation in order to
transform it, energizing the participants (in Feldman, Lather, 1991).
Feldman discusses one problem of an insider doing research; we are biased and
nonobjective. One cannot be a dispassionate outsider finding objective truths in action
research. The object of the research is the educational situation. Thus, the researcher, the
research, and the teaching are usually immersed into one. This has benefits and we need
to acknowledge that this is the situation. This is the setting for the researcher as a teacher
in their own classroom, and it is different from other forms of research.
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Further, in physical sciences there is an assumption that if research is repeated a
number of years later it will likely elicit the same or similar results. However, in the
social sciences if a study is repeated it is not necessarily possible to make the same
generalized conclusions. Though we may like to assume both branches of science work
the same way, they do not. The community that the ethnographer studies changes with
time as people interact and the ecosystem fluctuates. It is important to keep in mind that
the purpose for the teacher engaged in research is to come to a better understanding of
educational situations that will thus improve his or her practice (Feldman, 1994). The
emphasis is on the present situation. The ethnographer focuses on what has happened,
and the teacher focuses on what is happening. They are reflecting in practice, not on
Gone should be the need for the type of data and analysis that is part of standard
research in the social sciences. The teacher-researcher does not need to prove or to
generalize. They are able to examine avenues to project from their educational situation
in ways that will generate new educational situations. These situations include others in a
manner that allows for a merging of goals, understandings, and practices - visions
reached together. The task becomes to test an action and to see if the modified situation
is what was envisioned. If not, a new iteration of the research occurs, with another cycle
of - the three, the four, or the six-step method. The teacher-researcher proceeds via
continued discourse with the situation at hand, to gain a better understanding of it, and to
improve his/her own practice.
Elliot (1991) addresses this issue of validity of data in his book, Action research
for educational change. He recommends increasing validity by, “(1) Monitoring
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techniques that provide evidence of how well the course of action is being implemented
and (2) using techniques that provide evidence of unintended as well as intended effects,
“using a range of techniques that will enable one to look at what is going on from a
variety of angles or points of view” (Elliot, 1991, p. 76). It is important to present
alternative descriptions, interpretations, and explanations of events and practices in one’s
action research. For example, crosscheck (or member-check) eyewitness accounts of
events and observations. Give individuals opportunities to reply to accounts of their
activities and views, and have them incorporated into documents and reports. Consult
individuals about the contexts in which their actions and views are represented and
reported. (Elliot, in Feldman, 1994)
By taking these steps to enhance validity, ownership of data is brought to the
forefront of the research exhibiting the democratic process and collaboration involved as
well as the contributions of the individuals.
Altrichter and Posch (1992) have four criteria for conducting educational action
research (1) consult alternative perspectives - consult with other persons concerned or
other researchers, (2) test through practice - try results out and evaluate them in practical
action, (3) ethical justifiability - have the research process be compatible with educational
aims and human interaction, and (4) practical compatibility - have a research process and
instruments of investigation structured such that it can be used by professional
practitioners for the further development of their practice without excessive additional
time. Here is the addition of ethical considerations and practicality so that others may
gain from and use the research is valued. Triangulation and testing or monitoring are still
part of the key ideas to enhance validity.
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Summary of Findings on Validity
Because action research is a cyclical process of challenge and refinement, the
recommendations from research for increasing validity can be combined into a single
framework for action research.
Monitor & Test through practice - Carefully track what is being implemented. Try
results out and evaluate them.
Intended and unintended outcomes - Note the outcomes, all of them.
Triangulate & alternative perspectives - Gather data several different ways if possible
and consult with other people concerned or other researchers. Alternative perspectives
can act as a validity group with which to check your research plan and progress.
Ethical - Have high ethical standards in the work being done.
Group involvement - Welcome and report all views and perspectives.
Member checking - Check data with the person it is gathered on.
Practical - Structure research so others can benefit from it.
With these precautions, if the researcher can be confident that the validity of her or
his work is increased and it will be more substantial. With improved validity, the
research is more beneficial because it is more accurate.
Benefit
Example 2
An ongoing example of beneficial educational action research is seen in the work
of Lipka, Mohatt, and the Ciulistet (teacher-leaders) Group. They work on incorporating
Yup’ik language of instruction, pedagogical approaches to teaching, the use of Yup'ik
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knowledge for the teaching of mathematics and science, and recognition and inclusion of
Yup'ik community members in matters affecting schooling. Yup'ik teachers, work
together in the Ciulistet group and in collaboration with outside researchers. They find
ways to build on and to improve their schools. While the examples are specific to
Alaskan Native culture, the process and practices can be exemplary and inspirational for
teachers and situations elsewhere.
The Ciulistet group is a collaborative community-based action research group
including elders as well as teachers. Its goal, is "the inclusion of ancient knowledge,
Yup'ik ways of knowing, and ways of connecting this knowledge to modern schooling...
to create a contemporary and compatible system between the two" (Lipka, 1998, p. 26-
27). There is a need for indigenous teachers to organize in groups, work with the local
community, document and analyze their experiences, and share this with others. Many of
the teachers have stories that describe what oppression felt like by often well-meaning
but ignorant instructors, and how these teachers have worked around and overcome
obstacles to create classrooms and curricula that work, for them, for their students, and
for their communities.
When working on developing a Yup'ik immersion program, the action research
group invited outside experts in bilingual education to audio conference with school,
community, and university participants to decide if Yup'ik or English should be the first
language of instruction. The community-based meetings were instrumental in opening
these issues to the school district. They used community surveys, interviews, and group
discussions on the community's preference of language. After the data was collected and
analyzed, the group met again to discuss its implications. The outcome was that the
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community strongly supported a bilingual program, and wanted to begin with a Yup'ik
immersion program. They also actively attempted to put into practice what they were
learning from their group meetings about their classroom practices.
The collaborative action research project included organizing and encouraging
community interest in achieving a Yup'ik immersion program, conducting community-
wide interviews regarding the desire of the community to have a Yup'ik immersion
program, and recording their meetings with the community, school, and the university.
The analysis of this action research showed important differences in perception about the
role and function of Yup'ik language instruction. This phase of work resulted in difficult
political questions about power and legitimacy. After the Yup'ik immersion program was
instituted, the research agenda changed. The new question became, "What does Yup'ik
everyday and subsistence knowledge have to do with schooling?" This can be seen as the
next iteration in their action research.
Some of the benefits have been the following. The process of documenting
Yup'ik teachers teaching Yup'ik children has led to a number of publications and has
reinforced these ways of teaching as legitimate. By including certain school district
personnel in meetings, recognition of cultural differences in teaching is seen as an
acceptable alternative. The development of pedagogical and content approaches
emerging from Yup'ik traditions and ways of knowing has had a positive impact on the
schools. Today, the local school district includes these ways of knowing as part of its
district's goals and objectives. The inclusion of Yup'ik teachers and elders demonstrating
this knowledge to others is a sign of this change. Elders have commented that knowledge
that was hidden is now being revealed. This is directly due to the changing role that the
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elders have in relationship to schooling. Now, their knowledge is not only being
revealed, it is valued. (Lipka, 1998) The group has developed Math in a Cultural Context
(MCC), a supplemental elementary school mathematics curriculum. MCC brings local
knowledge into a core academic curriculum. This project has been a success on multiple
levels: repeated findings show that classes using MCC's modules outperform classes that
use the existing curriculum. The data, quantitative and qualitative, shows the overall
impact of MCC in closing the gap between rural Alaska Native students and their urban
Through 14 years of collaborative work, the Ciulistet, elders, school
administrators and university consultants have demonstrated and documented that
cultural differences don’t need to be viewed as a barrier to schooling, but can be an asset.
With many more Yup'ik and other indigenous teachers working together in formal and
informal groups, they believe a difference is being made that is having a positive impact
on students. Standardized test scores and grades reflect this positive improvement.
Parents and community members have requested that they continue their work of
bringing this knowledge into the schools. Through their action research, this group is
evolving a bilingual/bicultural educational system, creating equal education for all.
Natural Consequences of Action Research that Provide Benefit
Because of the personal involvement with the data, the teacher-researcher is likely
to find more satisfaction with the research being conducted. It is an ideal opportunity to
engage in research in one’s own practice. This supports with the intrinsic reason for
pursuing research – the “need to know” that Feldman writes about. The desire to look at
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the effectiveness of ones own practice. To be able to work on the development of one’s
practice allows for valuable gains to be made. Further, being able to test hypotheses
while teaching is natural and critical for the teacher. Testing through practice is a logical
process for the teacher-researcher (Feldman, 1994)
Because the teacher-researcher is in the classroom, they have more experiential
knowledge - the knowledge that is gained from being there in the field. While being in a
situation does not mean one has a privileged view necessarily and, of course, different
people have different views, there is no one view or one right view. However, by living
an experience in a particular context, the epistemic privilege grows (Feldman, 1994).
Teachers have this privilege because they have a view of what happens in schools that an
outside researcher does not. So, how does the teacher with this privilege know that their
view is an accurate one? This goes back to the drive and the “need to know” for a
teacher that Feldman discusses.
As a researcher, the teacher is conducting self-developmental research and insider
research. The research is being turned on the researcher. Cochran-Smith and Lytle state,
“Teacher research is concerned with the questions that arise from the lived experiences of
teachers and the everyday life of teaching expressed in a language that emanates from
practice. Teachers are concerned about the consequences of their actions, and teacher
research is often prompted by teachers’ desires to know more about the dynamic
interplay of classroom events” (in Feldman, Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1993 p. 59).
By having the opportunity to gain a better understanding of one’s educational
situation as a teacher-researcher, one can increase their knowledge and improve their
practice. As a result of research, one can generate new knowledge about their role as a
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teacher and learn to better perform their role by gaining personal understanding of what it
is they do and the situation within which they do it (Feldman, 1994). This beneficial new
knowledge about one’s own teaching practice is part of what we are interested in for this
dissertation. We want to see what the graduates have to say about what they learned and
gained from doing action research. According to Shulman (1992), the teacher stands to
gain by becoming a contributor to the knowledge base of teaching, provide other teachers
with an opportunity to share in the knowledge that they have gained in their research, and
receive critical feedback, along with concrete knowledge in the “need to know.” As a
teacher, case research reports may be valuable to others in the field. The opportunity for
the teacher researcher is that they can work with their students, faculty, or school towards
a common goal. Instead of trying to shift the other’s paradigm, they get to work together
towards a common paradigm. These are the benefits action research can offer that other
forms of research cannot.
Summary of the Findings on Benefit
Listing Shulman and Feldman’s work, teachers using action research will find it
more beneficial if they:
• Structure case reports so they can be of value to others.
• Are able to contribute to the knowledge base of teaching.
• Improve their practice by sharing information that is learned.
• Get opportunities to receive critical feedback.
• Fulfill the “need to know” with concrete examples and results.
• See that even case research reports may be valuable to others in the field.
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• Have the opportunity to work with students, faculty, or a school towards a common
goal.
Practicality
Example 3
Norman Weston (1998) writes about the Illinois Alliance of Achievement
Network (IAAN), a group that was formed with the assistance of grant money from the
Chicago Annenberg Challenge, along with the Academic Development Institute, three
Chicago public schools, and the Chicago Teachers’ Center. This project enabled over
one hundred K-8th grade teachers to come together to display, discuss, and exhibit their
research. The event represented the results of over forty, group and individual, action
research projects. Examples of work included project reports, photographs, charts,
graphs, newly developed teaching materials, informational handouts and videos. The
topics covered homeless children, imagery and its positive effects on education,
connecting mathematics with musical sounds, writers workshop, the student as
storyteller, creating a web page, a study of test preparation materials, integrating music
with study of the planets, buddy reading for emergent readers, oral language development
and critical thinking, multiple intelligences and learning centers, motivating writing
through art, letter writing to promote self-esteem, and peer tutoring, to name a few.
At the end of the day of sharing, many teachers said they had been inspired both
by the projects and by the interactions with their Alliance colleagues. One teacher said,
“It also was beneficial for me to be exposed to all these great ideas. It recharges and
motivates me to try some in the new school year.” The facilitator of the event stated, “It
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was energizing to see how meaningful these projects were to the teachers who worked on
them. Walking from exhibit to exhibit, I was impressed by the quality of work and the
knowledge gained from every project. Teachers became engaged in meaningful
reflective dialogue about what worked and what did not. Teachers also came away from
the conference as active learners. The excitement and curiosity to learn became
contagious.” The event capped off the first year of a long-term project designed to
promote the concept of learning communities within and between the three schools.
(Weston, 1998)
In this project they found that action research fostered an increased sense of
community in schools. Inner city teachers in the Chicago Public Schools become
involved in teacher action research, sharing their teaching practices and growing
Weston (1998) explains that the IAAN’s goal was to create a network that would
help to break down the traditional hierarchical structures that usually exist in large urban
schools and to replace them with smaller, more intimate groupings of teachers, students,
parents, and staff. The belief is that teachers, parents, and students, learn better in small
more personalized settings. In pursuit of this vision, three Chicago Alliance schools,
(Bethune Elementary - 560 students, 98% African American. Piccolo Elementary - 930
students, primarily Hispanic and African American. And, Spry Community School 850
students, predominately Hispanic) engaged in the three-year project. The goals were to
create a number of smaller “schools”, i.e. groups of teachers and students, within the
larger school, provide training in action research to help the small schools and groups
achieve their goals, and to unite all of the small schools and groups within the three larger
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