Contributed by:
The purpose of this study is to explore effective inclusive Foundation Phase teaching strategies in mainstream primary schools that could benefit every learner in an inclusive education setting. Teaching strategies in the context of this study were not limited to strategies for learning, teaching, and assessing content but included classroom management, creating positive learning environments, ensuring participation, selecting resources, modifying the curriculum, and creating opportunities for collaborating with colleagues and parents.
1.
EXPLORING EFFECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR
FOUNDATION PHASE TEACHERS IN MAINSTREAM
PRIMARY SCHOOLS TO EFFECT INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
ROSEMARY ANNE WAHL
(B.Ed Hons)
Dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the
degree
MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS
in
LEARNER SUPPORT
in the
SCHOOL OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
at the
NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY
(VAAL TRIANGLE FACULTY)
SUPERVISOR: PROF M. NEL
Vanderbijlpark
2017
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2.
DECLARATION
I declare that the entirety of this study is my own original work and I am owner of the
copyright thereof. All sources used have been acknowledged and I have not
previously submitted any part of the research towards a qualification.
_______________________ ______________
Signature Date
Copyright © 2017 North West University
All rights reserved
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3.
ABSTRACT
Inclusive education has been adopted worldwide in order to provide effective and
inclusive teaching to all learners, including those who experience barriers to learning
in mainstream schools. Teachers are central in this change in ensuring that all
learners are accommodated in the inclusive classroom. However, little evidence is
available in the South African context about effective teaching strategies and
precisely how they are applied in the inclusive classroom, while still guaranteeing
quality education.
The purpose of this study was to explore effective inclusive Foundation Phase
teaching strategies in mainstream primary schools that could benefit every learner in
an inclusive education setting. Teaching strategies in the context of this study were
not limited to strategies for learning, teaching and assessing content but included
classroom management, creating positive learning environments, ensuring
participation, selecting resources, modifying the curriculum and creating
opportunities for collaborating with colleagues and parents. In addition, enrichment
exercises, group work, peer teaching and a degree of fun were also considered.
A qualitative research design including open questionnaires, individual semi-
structured interviews, document analysis and classroom observations as data
collection instruments were employed. Content and constant comparative data
analysis was used to analyse data inductively as well as deductively. Twenty
participants were drawn from five private and public mainstream primary schools in
the East Sedibeng district through purposive sampling.
Findings indicated that a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic barriers exist in the
classrooms resulting in diverse learning needs. Essentially it was found that the
participants in this study used various teaching strategies, including different
teaching methods, to address these diverse learning needs. These various teaching
strategies mostly focused on a learner-centred approach, although direct teaching,
and particularly repetition, was also believed by the participants to be important
teaching methods. Critically, a positive and accommodating classroom atmosphere
was found to be vital in ensuring the successful application of different teaching
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4.
strategies to address a diversity of learning needs in the classroom. Good classroom
management and the creative use of resources were noticed as important to allow
for the implementation of effective teaching strategies. In general learners who
seemed to experience barriers to learning were accommodated through curriculum
and assessment modifications as well as individual support.
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5.
OPSOMMING
Inkulsiewe onderwys word wêreldwyd geimplementeer om doeltreffende en
inklusiewe onderring aan alle leerders te bied, insluitende diegene wie struikelblokke
ervaar in hoofstroomskole. Onderwysers staan sentraal tot hierdie implementering
om te verseker dat leerders wel geakkommodeer word binne die inklusiewe
klaskamer. Daar is egter min bewyse beskikbaar in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks oor
doeltreffende onderrigstrategieë en presies hoe hierdie strategieë toegepas word in
die inklusiewe klaskamer terwyl die kwaliteit van onderrig steeds gewaarborg word.
Die doel van hierdie studie was om doeltreffende inklusiewe grondslagfase
onderrigstrategieë in hoofstroom laerskole te ondersoek waarby elke leerder binne ‘n
inklusiewe onderrigomgewing baat kan vind. Onderrigstrategieë teen die agtergrond
van dié studie is nie beperk aan leer strategieë, onderrig en assesering van inhoud
maar sluit in klaskamerbestuur, die skepping van ‘n positiewe leeromgewing,
deelneming van leerlinge, keuse van hulpbronne, kurrikulum modifikasies en
geleenthede te skep om met kollegas en ouers saam te werk. Verder is
verrykingsstudies, groepwerk, portuuronderwys en ‘n mate van pret ook oorweeg.
‘n Kwalitatiewe navorsingontwerp wat oopvraelyste, semi-gestruktreerde vraelyste,
dokumentontleding asook klaskamer waarnemings insluit, was onderneem. Inhoud
en konstante vergelykende dataontleding was toegepas om data induktief sowel as
deduktief te ontleed. Twintig deelnemers vanuit vyf publieke en privaat
hoofstroomskole in die Oos-Sedibeng distrik is geselekteer deur middel van
doelgerigte steekproefneming.
Resultate dui die bestaan van verskeie intrinsieke sowel as ekstrinsieke
struikelblokke binne die klaskamer aan wat lei tot uiteenlopende leerbehoeftes. Daar
was in wese bevind dat die deelnemers aan die studie van verskeie tegnieke,
insluitend verskillende onderrigmetodes, gebruik gemaak het om die uiteenlopende
leerbehoeftes aan te spreek. Hierdie verskeie onderrigstrategieë was meesal
gefokus op ‘n leerder-gesentreerde benadering alhoewel die deelnemers glo dat
direkte onderrig, en spesifiek herhaling, ook belangrik is. Daar was bevind dat ‘n
positiewe en akkommoderende klaskamer atmosfeer noodsaaklik en krities is om die
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suksesvolle toepassing van verskillende onderrigstrategieë aan te spreek binne ‘n
verskeidenheid van leerbehoeftes in die klaskamer. Goeie klaskamerbestuur en die
kreatiewe gebruik van hulpbronne was uitgewys as belangrik vir die implementering
van effektiewe onderrigstrategieë. In die algemeen blyk dit dat leerders wat
struikelblokke ondervind met die leerproses geakkommodeer word deur middel van
modifikasies aan die kurrikulum en assesering, asook deur individuele
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7.
DEDICATION
I dedicate this research to those teachers in mainstream schools who through hard
work and dedication consistently guide and encourage all learners to surmount any
barriers to learning through persistence of their own.
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8.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express sincere gratitude to all who supported me during the duration of my
Professor Mirna Nel for her esteemed professional guidance, unwavering
support and motivation
The participant schools and their teachers for granting interviews, allowing
observations of their teaching and the completion of questionnaires
My parents, Anne and Mike Wahl together with my siblings for their
encouragement and faith in my efforts through difficult times
Finally, Professor Annelie Jordaan for making time in her demanding
schedule for the professional language editing
Rosemary Anne Wahl November 2016
‘Informed teachers; informed learners’
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9.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .......................................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ v
OPSOMMING ............................................................................................................. v
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................ vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................ viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................. ix
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... xvii
KEYWORDS .......................................................................................................... xviii
ABBREVIATIONS.................................................................................................. xviii
CHAPTER 1 ................................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION, PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY .. 1
1.1 Introduction and rationale ...................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem statement ................................................................................ 3
1.3 Purpose statement ................................................................................ 4
1.4 Research question ................................................................................ 4
1.4.1 Primary question ................................................................................... 4
1.4.2 Secondary questions ............................................................................. 4
1.5 Concept clarification .............................................................................. 5
1.5.1 Mainstream education ........................................................................... 5
1.5.2 Mainstreaming....................................................................................... 5
1.5.3 Inclusive education................................................................................ 5
1.5.4 Teaching strategies ............................................................................... 5
1.5.5 Teaching methods................................................................................. 5
1.6 Methodology.......................................................................................... 6
1.6.1 Paradigm ............................................................................................... 6
1.6.2 Research design ................................................................................... 7
1.6.3 Strategy of inquiry ................................................................................. 7
1.6.4 Methods of data collection .................................................................... 8
1.6.4.1 Literature Review .................................................................................. 8
1.6.4.2 Qualitative questionnaires ..................................................................... 8
1.6.4.3 Individual semi-structured interviews .................................................... 9
1.6.4.4 Observations ......................................................................................... 9
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10.
1.6.4.5 Document analysis .............................................................................. 10
1.6.5 Population sample............................................................................... 10
1.6.6 Data collection procedure ................................................................... 11
1.6.7 Data analysis....................................................................................... 12
1.7 Trustworthiness ................................................................................... 13
1.8 Role of researcher............................................................................... 14
1.9 Ethical considerations ......................................................................... 16
1.10 Chapter division .................................................................................. 16
CHAPTER 2 .. ………………………………………………………………………………16
TEACHING IN AN INCLUSIVE EDUCATION ENVIRONMENT .............................. 17
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 17
2.2 Theoretical background ....................................................................... 17
2.2.1 Defining inclusive education ................................................................ 17
2.2.2 Approaches to inclusive education ...................................................... 20
2.2.3 The medical deficit model versus the socio-ecological model ............. 22
2.2.3.1 Medical deficit model........................................................................... 22
2.2.3.2 Socio-ecological model ....................................................................... 23
2.3 Global development of inclusive education ......................................... 24
2.4 Inclusive education in South Africa ..................................................... 26
2.4.1 Policy development ............................................................................. 26
2.4.1.1 NCSNET and NCESS ......................................................................... 26
2.4.1.2 Education White Paper 6 (EWP6) ....................................................... 27
2.4.1.3 Ensuing key policies ............................................................................ 29
2.4.1.4 Curriculum developments.................................................................... 30
2.5 Challenges with regard to the implementation of inclusive education . 32
2.5.1 Extrinsic barriers to learning ................................................................ 32
2.5.1.1 Socio-economic problems ................................................................... 32
2.5.1.2 Budget constraints .............................................................................. 33
2.5.1.3 Inadequate implementation of policies ................................................ 34
2.5.1.4 Language of learning and teaching (LOLT) ......................................... 34
2.5.1.5 Inadequate collaboration ..................................................................... 35
2.5.1.6 Overcrowded classrooms .................................................................... 36
2.5.1.7 Disruptive behaviour ........................................................................... 37
2.5.1.8 Demands on the teacher ..................................................................... 38
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2.5.2 Intrinsic barriers to learning ................................................................. 39
2.5.2.1 Learning impairments .......................................................................... 39
2.5.2.2 Hearing impairments ........................................................................... 41
2.5.2.3 Visual impairments .............................................................................. 42
2.5.2.4 Autism ................................................................................................. 43
2.5.2.5 Epilepsy .............................................................................................. 43
2.5.2.6 Behavioural problems ......................................................................... 43
2.5.2.7 Mal- and undernourishment ................................................................ 44
2.6 The role of the teacher in inclusive education ..................................... 44
2.6.1 Attitudes and perceptions .................................................................... 45
2.7 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 3 .............................................................................................................. 49
TEACHING STRATEGIES TO EFFECT INCLUSIVE EDUCATION ......................... 49
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 49
3.2 Theoretical framework ......................................................................... 49
3.2.1 Behaviourism ...................................................................................... 49
3.2.2 Cognitive approach to learning............................................................ 51
3.2.3 Social constructivism ........................................................................... 53
3.2.4 Bio-ecological theory ........................................................................... 56
3.2.5 Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning ........................................................... 58
3.3 Conceptual framework ........................................................................ 60
3.3.1 What is a teaching strategy? ............................................................... 60
3.3.2 What is a teaching method? ................................................................ 61
3.4 Teaching approaches.......................................................................... 63
3.4.1 Teacher-centred approaches .............................................................. 64
3.4.2 Learner-centred approaches ............................................................... 64
3.4.2.1 Cooperative learning and teaching...................................................... 65
3.4.2.2 Cubing ................................................................................................. 67
3.4.2.3 Scaffolding .......................................................................................... 68
3.4.2.4 Repetition ............................................................................................ 69
3.5 Teaching to a flexible curriculum ......................................................... 69
3.6 Teaching within an inclusive classroom .............................................. 71
3.6.1 Inclusive pedagogy ............................................................................. 72
3.6.2 Differentiation ...................................................................................... 74
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12.
3.6.2.1 Differentiated assessment strategies .................................................. 77
3.6.2.1.1 Differentiation with no change to conceptual difficulty ......................... 77
3.6.2.1.2 Differentiation by varying difficulty of assessment task ....................... 78
3.6.3 Multi-level teaching ............................................................................ 78
3.6.4 Universal design of learning (UDL) ..................................................... 81
3.6.5 Individual support plans (ISP) ............................................................. 81
3.6.6 Collaboration among teachers ............................................................ 82
3.7 Classroom organisation, management and environment .................... 83
3.8 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 84
CHAPTER 4……………. ........................................................................................... 85
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................. 85
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................... 85
4.1.1 Background of the study ..................................................................... 85
4.1.2 Purpose of the study ........................................................................... 85
4.2 Research paradigm ............................................................................. 86
4.3 Research method ................................................................................ 86
4.3.1 Strategy of enquiry .............................................................................. 88
4.4 Participant selection ............................................................................ 88
4.4.1 Description of the school contexts ....................................................... 90
4.4.1.1 School A .............................................................................................. 90
4.4.1.2 School B .............................................................................................. 90
4.4.1.3 School C ............................................................................................. 91
4.4.1.4 School D ............................................................................................. 91
4.4.1.5 School E .............................................................................................. 91
4.5 Data collection..................................................................................... 92
4.5.1 Data collection methods ...................................................................... 92
4.5.1.1 Questionnaires .................................................................................... 92
4.5.1.2 Semi-structured individual interviews .................................................. 93
4.5.1.3 Observations ....................................................................................... 94
4.5.1.4 Document analysis .............................................................................. 95
4.5.2 The data collection procedure ............................................................. 95
4.5.3 Role of researcher............................................................................... 96
4.6 Data analysis and interpretation .......................................................... 97
4.7 Trustworthiness ................................................................................... 99
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4.8 Ethical aspects .................................................................................. 100
4.9 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 101
CHAPTER 5…. ....................................................................................................... 102
DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION .......................................................... 102
5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 102
5.2 Findings of the study ......................................................................... 102
5.3 SECTION A ....................................................................................... 103
5.3.1 Participant biographical information .................................................. 103
5.4 SECTION B and SECTION C findings .............................................. 106
5.4.1 Theme 1: Barriers to learning ............................................................ 108
5.4.1.1 Category 1: Intrinsic barriers to learning ........................................... 108
5.4.1.1.1 Subcategory 1: Perceptual problems ................................................ 109
5.4.1.1.2 Subcategory 2: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)....... 109
5.4.1.1.3 Subcategory 3: Limited language proficiency in the LOLT ................ 109
5.4.1.1.4 Subcategory 4: Poor concentration ................................................... 110
5.4.1.2 Category 2: Extrinsic barriers to learning .......................................... 110
5.4.1.2.1 Subcategory 1: Language of learning and teaching (LOLT) .............. 110
5.4.1.2.2 Subcategory 2: Social issues ............................................................ 111
5.4.1.2.3 Subcategory 3: Emotional issues ...................................................... 111
5.4.1.2.4 Subcategory 4: Late arrival ............................................................... 112
5.4.1.2.5 Subcategory 5: Little parental support ............................................... 112
5.4.1.2.6 Subcategory 6: Shortage of resources .............................................. 112
5.4.1.2.7 Subcategory 7: Overcrowded classrooms ......................................... 112
5.4.2 Theme 2: Factors affecting learning needs ....................................... 114
5.4.2.1 Category 1: Language ....................................................................... 114
5.4.2.1.1 Subcategory 1: Oral communication ................................................. 115
5.4.2.1.2 Subcategory 2: Reading and comprehension ................................... 115
5.4.2.1.3 Subcategory 3: Auditory discrimination ............................................. 116
5.4.2.2 Category 2: Mathematics .................................................................. 116
5.4.2.2.1 Subcategory 1: Concrete learning material ....................................... 116
5.4.2.2.2 Subcategory 2: Individual assistance for mathematics ...................... 116
5.4.2.3 Category 3: Fine motor problems ...................................................... 117
5.4.2.4 Category 4: Parental support ............................................................ 117
5.4.2.5 Category 5: Social problems ............................................................. 117
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5.4.2.6 Category 6: Teacher’s approach ....................................................... 117
5.4.3 Theme 3: Teaching methods............................................................. 118
5.4.3.1 Category 1: Using different teaching methods .................................. 118
5.4.3.2 Category 2: Whole class teaching ..................................................... 120
5.4.3.3 Category 3: Cooperative learning and teaching ............................... 121
5.4.3.4 Category 4: Peer teaching ................................................................ 122
5.4.3.4.1 Subcategory 1: Peers as interpreters ................................................ 122
5.4.3.4.2 Subcategory 2: Peers as assistants .................................................. 122
5.4.3.5 Category 5: Group work .................................................................... 124
5.4.3.5.1 Effective group work .......................................................................... 126
5.4.3.5.2 Ineffective group work ....................................................................... 129
5.4.3.6 Category 6: Individual instruction ...................................................... 129
5.4.3.7 Category 7: Demonstration ............................................................... 131
5.4.3.8 Category 8: Straddling ...................................................................... 132
5.4.3.9 Category 9: Scaffolding ..................................................................... 132
5.4.3.10 Category 10: Cubing ......................................................................... 133
5.4.3.11 Category 11: Repetition .................................................................... 134
5.4.4 Theme 4: Classroom management ................................................... 135
5.4.4.1 Category 1: Discipline ....................................................................... 135
5.4.4.1.1 Subcategory 1: Setting classroom rules ............................................ 136
5.4.4.1.2 Subcategory 2: Merit/demerit system ................................................ 136
5.4.4.1.3 Subcategory 3: Addressing behaviour issues ................................... 137
5.4.4.2 Category 2: Organisation .................................................................. 138
5.4.4.2.1 Subcategory 1: Delegating tasks....................................................... 138
5.4.4.2.2 Subcategory 2: Seating arrangements .............................................. 139
5.4.4.2.3 Subcategory 3: Keeping learners occupied ....................................... 139
5.4.4.2.4 Subcategory 4: Well-prepared lessons ............................................. 140
5.4.4.3 Category 3: Routine .......................................................................... 140
5.4.5 Theme 5: Promoting a positive social environment ........................... 140
5.4.5.1 Category 1: Inclusion ........................................................................ 141
5.4.5.2 Category 2: Recognition .................................................................... 142
5.4.5.3 Category 3: Values............................................................................ 142
5.4.5.3.1 Subcategory 1: Awareness of cultures .............................................. 143
5.4.5.3.2 Subcategory 2: Treatment of others .................................................. 144
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5.4.5.4 Category 4: The use of resources ..................................................... 145
5.4.6 Theme 6: Collaboration with colleagues .......................................... 145
5.4.7 Theme 7: Teaching strategies ........................................................... 146
5.4.7.1 Category 1: Teacher-learner interaction ............................................ 146
5.4.7.2 Category 2: Learner participation ..................................................... 148
5.4.7.2.1 Subcategory 1: Topics related to learner environment ...................... 152
5.4.7.3 Category 3: Teaching and learning material used ............................. 153
5.4.7.3.1 Subcategory 1: Language ................................................................. 153
5.4.7.3.2 Subcategory 2: Mathematics ............................................................. 156
5.4.7.3.3 Subcategory 3: Life skills .................................................................. 157
5.4.7.4 Category 4: Modification of curriculum ............................................. 158
5.4.7.4.1 Subcategory 1: Language ................................................................. 159
5.4.7.4.2 Subcategory 2: Mathematics ............................................................. 162
5.4.7.5 Category 5: Lesson planning............................................................. 163
5.4.7.6 Category 6: Assessment modifications ............................................. 164
5.4.7.6.1 Subcategory 1: Language ................................................................. 164
5.4.7.6.2 Subcategory 2: Mathematics ............................................................ 167
5.4.7.7 Category 7: Parent involvement ........................................................ 168
5.4.7.7.1 Subcategory 1: General methods to include parents ........................ 168
5.4.7.7.2 Subcategory 2: Responses from parents or caregivers .................... 169
5.5 Interpretation and discussion of integrated findings .......................... 170
5.5.1 Biographical background ................................................................... 170
5.5.2 Barriers to learning ............................................................................ 170
5.5.3 Factors affecting learning needs ....................................................... 173
5.5.4 Teaching methods............................................................................. 174
5.5.5 Classroom management ................................................................... 178
5.5.6 Promoting a positive social environment ........................................... 179
5.5.7 Collaboration with colleagues............................................................ 180
5.5.8 Teaching strategies ........................................................................... 180
5.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 186
CHAPTER 6 ............................................................................................................ 187
SUMMARY OF THE FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF
THE STUDY ............................................................................................................ 187
6.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 187
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6.2 Overview of the study ........................................................................ 187
6.3 Findings from the literature review .................................................... 188
6.3.1 What is inclusive education? ............................................................. 189
6.3.2 How does the literature describe effective teaching? ........................ 189
6.3.3 What makes teaching strategies effective in an inclusive classroom?
………………………………………………………………………………191
6.4 Empirical findings of this study .......................................................... 193
6.4.1 What is inclusive education? ............................................................. 193
6.4.2 Which teaching strategies did Foundation Phase teachers believe were
effective in an inclusive classroom? .................................................. 193
6.4.3 Which teaching strategies were employed by Foundation Phase
teachers? .......................................................................................... 195
6.4.4 How should Foundation Phase teachers choose and implement
teaching strategies to effect inclusive education? (This research
question is answered from the literature review as well as the empirical
research.) .......................................................................................... 196
6.5 Recommendations ............................................................................ 200
6.6 Possible contributions ....................................................................... 201
6.7 Limitations ......................................................................................... 201
6.8 Recommendations for further research ............................................. 202
6.9 Conclusion ........................................................................................ 202
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................... 203
ADDENDUM A: INFORMED CONSENT FORM .................................................... 228
ADDENDUM B: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE ............................................................. 233
ADDENDUM C: OBSERVATION PLAN ................................................................ 234
ADDENDUM D: GAUTENG DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION CONSENT ........... 238
ADDENDUM E: GAUTENG DEPARTMENT OF EUCATION AMENDED
CONSENT............................................................................................................... 240
ADDENDUM F: PARTICIPANT LETTER OF CONSENT AND QUESTIONNAIRE.242
ADDENDUM G: 1. EXAMPLE OF ANALYSED QUESTIONNAIRE DATA ............ 252
2. EXAMPLE OF ANALYSED OBSERVATION DATA ............... 252
ADDENDUM H: LETTER FROM LANGUAGE EDITOR ........................................ 258
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Medical model vs. socio-ecological model............................................... 24
Table 4.1: Research design .................................................................................... 87
Table 4.2: Data collection process ........................................................................... 95
Table 4.3: Data analysis process ............................................................................. 98
Table 5.1: Biographical and research information table ......................................... 104
Table 5.2: Framework outline of themes and categories ........................................ 106
Table 5.3: Barriers to learning described by participants........................................ 108
Table 5.4: Areas indicating learning needs ............................................................ 114
Table 5.5: Framework depicting teaching methods applied by participants ........... 118
Table 5.6: Framework outline determining management strategies in the inclusive
classroom ............................................................................................................... 135
Table 5.7: Framework outline of promoting a positive social environment ............. 141
Table 5.8: Teaching strategies utilised by participants ........................................... 146
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18.
KEYWORDS
Inclusion Inclusive education Teaching strategies
Mainstream Barriers to learning Teaching methods
ABBREVIATIONS
Caps: Curriculum Assessment Policy
DBE: Department of Basic Education
DBST: District Based Support Team
DoE: Department of Education
EFA: Education for All
EWP6: Education White Paper 6
HOD: Head of Department
LSEN: Learners with Special Education Needs
HIV/Aids: Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
ILST: Institution Level Support Team
ISP: Individual Support Programmes/Plans
LOLT: Language of Learning and Teaching
NCESS: National Committee on Education Support Services
NCS: National Curriculum Statements
NCSNET: National Commission on Special Needs in Education and Training
SIAS: Screening, Identification Assessment and Support policy
UDL: Universal Design for Learning
UNESCO: United Nations, Education, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
UNICEF: United Nations International Emergency Children’s Fund (now United
Nations Children’s Fund
ZPD: Zone of Proximal Development
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19.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION, PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction and rationale
The Salamanca World Conference on Special Needs Education of the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, 1994)
sanctioned the concept of inclusive education and drove the idea that inclusive
schooling would effectively eliminate discrimination and achieve equity in education.
The concept of inclusion was perceived to be a process to identify and remove
barriers and ensure participation and achievement for all learners (UNESCO,
Equality and access to quality education is embedded in South Africa’s Constitution
(RSA, 1996) and based on these principles Education White Paper 6 (EWP6) on
Special Needs Education: building an inclusive education and training education
system, was released in 2001 and developed to create positive learning conditions
for all learners in an inclusive education system (Department of Education [DoE],
2001; Hay & Beyers, 2011:235).
With the introduction of EWP6 there was a paradigm shift from the segregated
approach of the medical model to embracing inclusion. However, the implementation
of inclusive education continues to be hampered by a lack of funding, inefficient
physical and human resources, as well as continual political changes impacting on
education (Wildeman & Nomdo, 2007:1; Bines & Lei, 2011:420-423). Since teachers
are seen to be central to the implementation of inclusive education they need to be
developed to be able to deliver multi-level classroom teaching with variations
applicable to individual needs of learners (Swanepoel, 2013a:189). This task is
complicated by numerous challenges, such as, learners that come from adverse
economic backgrounds with illiterate parents, health problems as a result of the
Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome HIV/Aids
pandemic and language barriers (Daniels, 2010:640). In a diverse classroom
teachers also need to deal with differing learning styles and ability levels of learners.
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20.
Classes with a large number of learners often present disciplinary problems
exacerbated by learners with disruptive behaviour disorders which frequently lead to
educators lacking the motivation to implement adaptive strategies in considering
each learner’s individual learning needs (Engelbrecht, 2013b:35).
Many teachers are not adequately qualified to cope with the diversity of learning
needs and the barriers to learning that occur as a result of these challenges. It is
especially important that Foundation Phase teachers are adequately trained to deal
with a variety of barriers to learning because of the impact of learners’
developmental age in this phase (Engelbrecht 2013a:146, 223). This requires that
teachers’ are able to implement different and appropriate teaching strategies (Davis
& Florian, 2004b:13).
Florian and Black-Hawkins (2011:813) assert that inclusive education requires
dealing with diversity through the differentiation of the curriculum and of teaching
methods, as well as of teaching and learning material and assessment tasks. Lesson
plans and teaching strategies therefore need to be devised to incorporate multi-level
learning, teaching and assessment (Nel, 2013:28). Many teachers develop a store of
effective teaching strategies through years of practice. Yet, effective teaching
methods are often contained within specific schools or environments and remains
undocumented (McMenamin, 2011:99; Sapon-Shevin, 2007:180-216). The focus of
this study was to explore some Foundation Phase teachers’ teaching strategies and
to record and report on them, in order to inform inclusive classroom training and
practices for a broader audience.
Many studies (e.g. Daniels, 2010:640; Hodkinson, 2010:65) focused on the
challenges involved to bring about an inclusive education system, such as, the belief
by some teachers that special needs learners hold back the rest of the class and the
notion that a lack of resources do not allow for differentiation. This indicates that
there is a need for research to determine which teaching strategies do promote an
effective inclusive education environment. The focus in research is often on learners
experiencing learning barriers and why inclusive education is unsuccessful, resulting
in a lack of research on teaching and learning methodologies that have shown to
work for all learners in the classroom (Miles & Singal, 2010:1). Davis and Florian
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(2004b:24), as well as Forlin and Chambers (2011:24), assert that knowledge is
insufficient on specific practices used to enable inclusive teaching methods of the
different curriculum subjects. Only a limited number of studies using small groups of
participants have been conducted on assessing certain teaching approaches (Davis
& Florian, 2004b:12; Forlin & Chambers, 2011:14). This results in an absence of a
sound research network and data base that could provide feedback on the effects of
various approaches to teaching, the value of learner participation in the classroom,
as well as an indication of their learning and development (Davis & Florian,
2004b:30; Forlin & Chambers, 2011:14). Furthermore, a gap in research is also
evident on the importance of early detection of learners with more complex learning
needs and the effectiveness of timely applied intervention teaching strategies (Khan,
In my own experience as a Foundation Phase teacher in classrooms with a diversity
of learning needs I identified that effective teaching strategies applied in an inclusive
environment need to provide for all learners in the classroom while no learner
experiences an interruption of progress. This research focused on exploring and
identifying the most effective inclusive teaching approaches and strategies applied
by Foundation Phase teachers at five mainstream schools in the Sedibeng East
district. The findings of the study could assist in making recommendations for policy-
makers and practitioners in developing more appropriate and sustainable practices
and policies to steer towards an inclusive pedagogy in order to allow the
participation, well-being and progress of all learners. The aim of the study was to
initiate reflection and raise awareness regarding teaching strategies shown to be
successful in an inclusive setting.
1.2 Problem statement
For inclusive education to be successfully implemented it has to benefit all learners
at all times where participation moulds experiences and uniqueness of all learners
(Kozleski et al., 2014:235). However, in practice inclusive education seems to
seldom take into consideration the coping capability of the teacher; especially with
regard to the application of various teaching strategies. Issues such as time
constraints placed on the teacher by the education department to accomplish the
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curriculum requirements place an additional workload on the teacher leaving little
time to attend to individual learner needs. Large classroom numbers, lack of support
from the Education Department, inadequately trained teachers and a shortage of
resources do little to alleviate the situation (Wildeman & Nomdo, 2007:17). Yet,
despite these challenges many teachers employ effective teaching strategies, which
have not yet been fully been explored and recorded (Sapon-Shevin, 2007:180-216).
1.3 Purpose statement
The primary aim of the study was to explore effective inclusive Foundation Phase
teaching strategies in mainstream primary schools that could benefit every learner in
an inclusive education setting.
1.4 Research question
1.4.1 Primary question
Which effective teaching strategies are employed by Foundation Phase teachers in
mainstream primary schools to effect inclusive education?
1.4.2 Secondary questions
What is inclusive education?
How does the literature describe effective teaching?
What makes teaching strategies effective in an inclusive classroom?
Which teaching strategies do Foundation Phase teachers believe are effective
in an inclusive classroom?
Which teaching strategies are employed by Foundation Phase teachers?
How should Foundation Phase teachers choose and implement teaching
strategies to effect inclusive education?
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1.5 Concept clarification
Terminology used in inclusive education continually underwent changes in
accordance with politically correct language as historic practices contributed to
segregation and exclusion which impacted on shaping of education structures. Thus
with the move towards inclusive education concepts were refined (Sheehy,
2003:124). Key concepts used in this study are clarified below.
1.5.1 Mainstream education
Mainstream education refers to ordinary schools where learners require minimal
support (Landsberg, 2011a:69).
1.5.2 Mainstreaming
Mainstreaming, as defined in relevance to learners with disabilities, refers to
inclusion of learners in the general education process. It involves selectively placing
these learners in mainstream classes (Swart & Pettipher, 2011: 18).
1.5.3 Inclusive education
According to Sapon-Shevin (2007:6) inclusive education refers to the educational
rights of all children to receive quality education in the mainstream of education as
full members. Education White Paper 6 (EWP6) declares that inclusive education is
about acknowledging that all learners can learn and need support (Department of
Education, 2001:16-17).
1.5.4 Teaching strategies
Teaching strategies are plans or techniques that are used to ensure that a certain
concept or lesson is passed from the teacher to the learner by several means. For
the purpose of strategies used in inclusive education these strategies must be
applicable to all levels of ability and should vary in accordance with learners’ learning
styles and needs (Engelbrecht, 2013b:35). Monyai (2006:104) asserted that for a
teaching strategy to be effective appropriate teaching strategy choices must be
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matched with the lesson plan and activities adapted to facilitate all learners. This
requires that a teacher is versatile in choosing teaching strategies that will ultimately
produce independent and self-motivated learners.
Within the context of inclusive education policy, teaching strategies do not only refer
to strategies for teaching, learning and assessing content but encompass all the
different methods teachers employ to address different barriers to learning. This
includes strategies to manage the classroom, a variety of teaching styles, to create
positive learning environments, to ensure participation, to select resources and
create opportunities for collaborating with colleagues (Florian & Black-Hawkins,
2011:822) and parents. Furthermore, teaching strategies also comprise modifying
the curriculum (Ainscow & Miles, 2008:16), enrichment exercises, group work, peer
teaching (Landsberg, 2011a:82) and an element of fun.
1.5.5 Teaching methods
Teaching methods are principles and methodology applied by teachers to achieve
learning outcomes and encompass a variety of methods for instruction, among
others, various styles of tuition, collaborating, classroom discussion, teacher-centred
and learner-centred teaching (Davis, 1999:389).
1.6 Methodology
1.6.1 Paradigm
The philosophy fundamental to this research is an interpretive worldview allowing the
researcher to draw on the constructive philosophical assumptions of participants.
Social constructivists believe this paradigm is often combined with interpretivism as
individuals, based on their historical and social perspectives, seek to understand the
world and develop subjective meanings towards their experiences and towards
objects and things (Creswell, 2009:8). This social meaning is therefore constructed
by participants’ interpretation of a situation and through interaction with others. The
interpretivistic view strives towards a holistic understanding of the relationship and
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interaction among participants, as well as how meaning is derived from the
phenomenon (Nieuwenhuis, 2010b:75; Creswell, 2009:176).
For the purpose of this study, as researcher I was the primary instrument in the
social setting of the data-gathering process and through open questionnaires,
interviews, document analysis and observations I pursued in-depth exploration of a
situation and constructed interpretation in order to obtain a holistic view. Data was
gathered by compiling questions and conducting face-to-face interviews with
participants, as well as availing to participate as observer in the natural environment
of the classroom.
1.6.2 Research design
The qualitative research method is meant to give meaning to a social interactive
event or role from which interpretations are determined (Creswell, 2009:194). The
researcher generates meaning from gathering data in the field (Creswell, 2009:9),
while understanding a phenomenon by means of gaining different insights from
participants to be described and analysed (Nieuwenhuis, 2010b:81).
The qualitative approach guided this research and multiple sources of data
generation were used to obtain a holistic picture. (Nieuwenhuis, 2010b:85).
1.6.3 Strategy of inquiry
This study entailed an in-depth investigation into the process of inclusive teaching
strategies utilising the qualitative strategy of a multiple case study. The nature of the
research involved collecting comprehensive information over a certain period by
means of numerous data collection procedures which is synonymous with the
strategy (Creswell, 2009:13). Case study research investigates an event or related
events that modify a specific phenomenon and is instrumental for acquiring greater
insight and comprehending a certain situation (Nieuwenhuis, 2010a:76). Several
sources and numerous techniques were used to gather data that included a literature
review, open questionnaires, interviews, document analysis and observations. Cases
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chosen enabled me to make comparisons between them through certain data
collection methods so as to extend and validate concepts (Fouchè, 2007: 272).
1.6.4 Methods of data collection
1.6.4.1 Literature Review
Research encompassed both primary and secondary resources on the topic. The
North-West University library with links to search engines NEXUS and EBSCO-host
were employed throughout the study, as well as text books, journals and other
A complete theoretical and conceptual framework was provided in the literature
review from which data was analysed and interpreted. The literature review afforded
clarity on important concepts regarding teaching strategies in inclusive classrooms in
mainstream education. Explicit literature enabled the research design and
methodology to be structured within the interpretive paradigm. Conclusions were
drawn from the literature in accordance with the data gathered from questionnaires,
interviews and observations for analysis.
1.6.4.2 Qualitative questionnaires
The literature review informed the questions. A self-structured questionnaire that
contained open-ended questions was compiled and administered to participating
mainstream Foundation Phase educators within the Sedibeng East district. The
questions were intended to establish the kind of teaching strategies Foundation
Phase teachers employed when confronted with a diversity of learning needs in an
inclusive classroom. As the questions were intended to find out factual details it was
beneficial to have more open, unstructured and unobtrusive questions (Fink,
2003:32). Questionnaires were first pilot tested using a sample of the population that
did not participate in the main study for a qualitative overview to guarantee well-
structured questions that would elicit valid responses towards this research.
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1.6.4.3 Individual semi-structured interviews
Interviews are viewed as a valid facet of research methodology as they can provide
rich descriptions (Greeff, 2007:296). In keeping to this, semi-structured interviews,
comprising pre-determined questions, as a guiding schedule were conducted face-
to-face with some mainstream Foundation Phase educators. Individual semi-
structured interviews of approximately 30 minutes were conducted with each
participant and as researcher I directed the route of questioning by probing to
explore relevant remarks made by the participants (Creswell, 2009:179). Interview
data was later transcribed and documented and thereafter analysed to also identify
possible new paths of inquiry to pursue during the observations (Greeff, 2007:296;
Nieuwenhuis, 2010b:87). My intention was to explore teaching strategies used by
participants, to address a diversity of needs in an inclusive setting.
1.6.4.4 Observations
Qualitative research involves purposely selecting sites or individuals for a proposed
study (Nieuwenhuis, 2010b:85). Five local schools that would best help to clarify the
problem and the research question had been identified for the purpose of this
research and I was allowed to act as observer participant in the natural setting of the
classroom situation, while remaining as unobtrusive as possible. Running records of
observations focusing on the situation of inclusive practices were documented with
descriptions of the consequential responses, as well as my reflection of events
(Nieuwenhuis, 2010b:85). This form of direct observation suggested a detached
perspective and tended to be more structured than participant observation (Trochim
& Donnelly, 2008:147). However, it provided first-hand experience of the classroom
situation and heightened understanding of activities under study through reflection
(Nieuwenhuis, 2010b:84; Creswell, 2009:175). I was able to focus predominantly on
observing inclusive teaching strategies.
The literature review, as well as data from the questionnaires and interviews,
assisted in highlighting aspects to note during observations and new data was also
recorded in the observational notes. There were twenty observations across the
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chosen schools and rich data was gained. Observations took place during the
normal course of lessons and averaged half an hour long at the given time.
1.6.4.5 Document analysis
Document analysis entails any written communication that described the
phenomenon under investigation whether published or unpublished (Nieuwenhuis,
2010b:82). Documents, such as, curriculum documents, books of learners, individual
assessment files, as well as Departmental circulars, were assessed to establish
recurring ideas, patterns and categories. Evidence that certain teaching strategies
were considered effective in inclusive education were determined by noting that they
featured consistently across the study. Analyses of documents were undertaken with
strict discretion and validity of the information assessed prior to including the data in
this study.
1.6.5 Population sample
Non-probability sampling methods are mostly utilised in qualitative research, such
as, the purposive sampling criterion used in this study. Participants in purposive
sampling are the holders of the data needed for research and chosen according to
preselected criteria befitting the research question as they are involved in the
required settings and activities (Nieuwenhuis, 2010b:79). The criteria essential for
participants involved in this research engaged Foundation Phase educators
practicing inclusive education teaching strategies in the classroom. This method of
sampling also allowed for convenience when considering travelling and time saving
aspects for the research.
The population sample for the purpose of this research comprised twenty
participants drawn from five mainstream primary schools in the Sedibeng East
district in Gauteng who were Foundation Phase teachers. During formal and informal
meetings the teachers from the selected schools indicated that they believed they
were implementing successful inclusive teaching strategies in their classrooms to
address their learners’ diverse learning needs. This was part of the motivation to
conduct this study. These teachers further indicated their readiness to complete
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questionnaires, be interviewed and to be observed in their classrooms. Written
consent was obtained from principals, heads of department and participants. The
approval allowed the participants to be interviewed, have them complete the
questionnaires, let their classroom practices be observed and documents to be
analysed while confidentiality at all times was ensured.
More detail about the sample is provided in Chapters 4 and 5.
1.6.6 Data collection procedure
In order to gain insight and understanding from this case study research the
following multiple data collection procedures were applied:
1) Data collection commenced with a literature review where academic works
based on similar studies including journals, articles, dissertations and theses
were studied. Documents, such as, curriculum documents and Department
circulars, were also scrutinised.
2) The literature review and document analysis informed the questionnaire,
interviews and observations.
3) Documentation, such as, teachers’ notes of learners were also scrutinised to
provide a shared, collective and comprehensive review.
4) Written consent was obtained from principals, Heads of Department at the
schools and participants to conduct interviews and observations, to complete
the questionnaires and analyse relevant documents (e.g. lesson plans and
books of learners) by the researcher from the selected schools.
Confidentiality was guaranteed.
5) A pilot study, using participants not involved in the research, took place to
determine whether the contents of the questionnaire will be understandable
and appropriate.
6) Findings from the pilot study identified unclear themes and language, but I
only needed to make minor necessary language and editorial alterations.
7) Questionnaires were thereafter handed out to participants to complete with
the open-ended questions designed to elicit information on various inclusive
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teaching strategies that these participants’ employed in the classroom, and
the outcomes of their implementation.
8) The findings of these questionnaires informed the individual interview
schedule.
9) Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted and the data
transcribed.
10) Categories of behaviour that I wished to observe were extracted from the
data analysis of the literature, questionnaires and interviews.
11) Observations in the natural location of the classroom took place and
transcribed.
12) The observations included my reflections from a researcher’s perspective
which I documented.
13) An analysis of the data by utilising the constant comparative method with all
four data sets, namely, questionnaires, interviews, document analysis and
observations was undertaken and then interpreted.
14) My promoter, knowledgeable in the field of inclusive education and
experienced in qualitative research methods confirmed the validity of coding
used.
1.6.7 Data analysis
Data analysis is a process that determines logic from data collected by reducing,
merging, interpreting information from observations, verbal accounts and
documentation (Merriam, 2009:178). The interpretative philosophy (hermeneutics) of
qualitative data analysis is the extraction of meaningful content from a comparative
investigation under study, usually through an inductive analysis of data. Inductive
analysis involves continual reflection, analysing questions and documenting
information (Creswell, 2009:184; Nieuwenhuis, 2010b:84). However, in this study
deductive analysis was also applied since the themes as abstracted from the
literature review and applied in the open questionnaire were in many instances used
as themes in the data analysis (Pope et al., 2000; Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006;
Bradley et al., 2007). In qualitative deductive analysis preliminary codes can help
researchers to integrate concepts already identified in the literature review (Bradley
et al., 2007:1763).
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For this study data gathered from questionnaires, comprehensive written transcripts
of interviews and structured observations, together with other various sources was
studied to identify key aspects. The data was then analysed by means of constant
comparative analysis (Merriam, 2009:134). Data identified as significant to the study
I coded and placed into themes, categories and subcategories as the study
progressed (Lincoln & Guba, 1985:334-341; Struwig & Stead, 2004:170).
I was able to interpret the meaning of the data based on the participants’
perspectives to compare findings of recurring themes, identify patterns and
connections between statements and to explain the social process under study,
namely, effective teaching strategies employed in inclusive classrooms in the
Foundation Phase. The findings are comprehensively described with some
information presented in tabular form in Chapter 5.
1.7 Trustworthiness
Validity refers to soundness or credibility of the understandings (Nieuwenhuis,
2010a:114). Descriptive validity refers to factual and comprehensive information and
whether information has been omitted or distorted, while interpretive validity
indicates that meanings and perspectives of participants’ regarding what is being
investigated are correctly reported (Struwig & Stead, 2004:144). To ensure validity
for this study a variety of collection methods were used which included:
Comparing findings with other written sources, such as data acquired from the
literature review (Strydom & Delport, 2007:317)
Submitting transcripts and interpretation of data to participants to examine the
accuracy of the data, i.e. member checking (Nieuwenhuis, 2010b:80)
Checking accuracy of findings across the different data collection methods of
this research (interviews, observation, questionnaires and document analysis)
as this is commonly regarded as leading to trustworthiness (Nieuwenhuis,
2010b:80)
Rich, thick descriptions of the setting and certain classroom events, as advised
by Creswell (2009:192), were applied in this research to convey a shared
experience
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An audit trail to verify how codes, categories and themes were derived from
the raw data (Addendum G)
Observing and documenting any teaching strategies in the various classrooms
that continually produced similar findings, as suggested by Struwig and Stead
(2004:134) in all five schools under study
Ensuring that the contents of the questionnaire were correctly worded and
relevant to the topic with a pilot study allowing for criticism and comments by
respondents not involved in the research
Multiple data sources, such as document analysis, questionnaires, interviews
and observations to increase reliability
My promoter, is knowledgeable in the area of inclusive education substantiated
the interpretation of data to provide an objective assessment and enhance
reliability as a second opinion (Creswell, 2009:192)
Data collection and analysis was described in detail in Chapter 4 to clarify methods
used in the research. All phases of the project were scrutinised by the study’s
supervisor. Data was also constantly compared with the codes to ensure no
deviation from the definition of the codes occurred (Creswell, 2009:190).
I was aware throughout this study that though every effort was made to avoid bias,
interpretation of the findings was shaped by my background. Samples in qualitative
research tend to be small, as in this research, therefore external generalisability
could not be considered. Internal generalisability was addressed as explained above,
whereby participants were allowed to comment on accuracy of the findings and by
employing crystallisation of data (Struwig & Stead, 2004:146; Maree & Van der
Westhuizen, 2010:40). In this study crystallisation entailed comparing results of the
multiple methods of data collection and analysis to determine similarities in the
findings of the various approaches.
1.8 Role of researcher
In qualitative research the researcher is considered the ‘instrument’ for collecting and
analysing data and generating meaningful information to the best of the researcher’s
ability (Creswell, 2009:175; Merriam, 2009:67) as credibility of qualitative research
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unequivocally depends on the competence of the investigator (Patton, 2002:14).
Personal contact of the researcher with participants in the qualitative approach gives
rise to concern regarding the subjective nature involved. It was important that
honest, credible and meaningful findings were produced in this evaluation so I
viewed my involvement and immersion in the study as vital to record happenings in
According to Creswell (2009:175) it is essential that honest and meaningful findings
are produced by the researcher who endeavours to prevent biased distortion of data
that could jeopardise the reliability of the study. Creswell (2009:175) expanded that
total objectivity may not be attained due to the subjective nature of the approach;
that includes the researcher’s disposition, like opinions, expectations and values.
As evaluator I pursued the purpose of the investigation to determine effectiveness
and provide information regarding the achievements of objectives of the study.
Permission was obtained from the gatekeepers, such as, the principals of the five
schools concerned and participants to access the settings to study the situation. A
brief proposal was submitted for review by gatekeepers explaining:
the reasons for choosing the research site;
how the study was to be conducted with minimal disruption;
the manner in which results would be reported;
the benefits of the study to the gatekeeper; and
confidentiality and consideration of participants (Creswell, 2009:178).
Participants were encouraged to cooperate with me by promoting commitment
through advocating the worth of the research and addressing any associated
barriers. As interviewer I understood and knew when to probe and when to alter
direction of the discussion. Establishing rapport with respondents was necessary and
communication channels were kept constantly clear (Merriam, 2009:23).
The possibility that my presence in the classroom as an observer could influence the
normal daily classroom environment was taken into consideration and in order not to
obscure the participants’ interpretations I exercised independent thought by focusing
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on the language of the participants rather than on my own interpretation of the
terminology. The participants’ opinions on the accuracy of the documented data from
the information that they provided was also sought (Struwig & Stead, 2004:144).
The research sites were all considered of equal standing in my opinion as I had no
previous connections with the various classroom settings that could stand in the way
of data collection.
1.9 Ethical considerations
Ethical guidelines in research protect individuals against possible harmful effects
related to research (Trochim & Donnelly, 2008:24). My standing as researcher was
to undertake and ensure that ethical considerations were adhered to. Consent to
pursue the research was sought from the Gauteng Department of Education,
gatekeepers, participants and the ethics committee of NWU. Participants were
informed in writing regarding all aspects of the research, such as, that data would
remain anonymous and that they could withdraw at any time from the research. An
informed consent form was developed for participants to sign which acknowledged
protection of their rights and included aspects, such as, the purpose of the research,
the benefits of participation, and guarantee of confidentiality (Creswell, 2009:89).
Data stemming from this research will be stored for at least five years in a locked
cupboard. More detail about ethical procedures will be discussed in Chapter 4.
1.10 Chapter division
Chapter 1: Introduction, statement of the problem and rationale for the study
Chapter 2: Teaching in an inclusive education environment
Chapter 3: Teaching strategies to effect inclusive education
Chapter 4: Research methodology
Chapter 5: Data analysis and interpretation
Chapter 6: Summary of the findings, recommendations and limitations of the study
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2. CHAPTER 2
3. TEACHING IN AN INCLUSIVE EDUCATION ENVIRONMENT
2.1 Introduction
In line with the 1994 Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action (UNESCO,
1994:vii-x) the collective effort to provide equal opportunities for all learners and the
pursuit of excellence in teaching are of the highest priority in education worldwide.
As an increasing number of learners from different backgrounds with diverse abilities
and education enter the mainstream, teaching methods and strategies need to be
reconstructed to accommodate these diverse demands.
In this chapter inclusive education is defined and the reasons for its implementation
are explained with an account of how several countries address the issue. Different
approaches with regard to mainstream, integration and inclusion are also described
together with policy development in South Africa, including the Curriculum
Assessment Policy Statements (CAPS). Challenges in implementing inclusive
education are highlighted and contrary arguments on inclusivity based on research
are offered. Attention will also be drawn to the changing role of the mainstream
teacher within an inclusive education system.
2.2 Theoretical background
2.2.1 Defining inclusive education
Defining inclusive education is a complex and intricate process, since it could be
viewed from different perspectives. Florian and Black-Hawkins (2011:814) maintain
that the term ‘inclusive’ is so broadly used in education that it lacks precise definition,
but is more or less understood as a process of increasing participation, while
Ainscow and Miles (2008:17) describe a typology of five ways of thinking about
inclusion as follows:
a) Inclusion concerned with disability and “special educational needs”. This
refers to the general assumption that inclusion is primarily about placing
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learners with disabilities or special educational needs in the mainstream and
could also be defined as mainstreaming. However, the appropriateness of
such an approach can be questioned, since it focuses on a ‘‘disabled’’ or
‘‘special needs’’ part of the learners and disregards other ways in which
participation may be impeded or enhanced. Still including learners with
disabilities in the mainstream should remain a key objective.
b) Inclusion as a response to disciplinary exclusions. Learners who are identified
as demonstrating bad or difficult behaviour can be excluded from education
by being expelled from school.
c) Groups vulnerable to exclusion. This perspective concerns learners who could
be vulnerable to social exclusion, such as disabled learners, including
learners with learning disabilities; learners who are excluded from school for
disciplinary reasons; and learners living in economically poor communities.
According to Foreman (2008:31) inclusivity is therefore the “challenge to
provide the best possible learning environment for all children, regardless of
social, cultural, ethnic background, ability or disability”.
d) Promoting a school for all. Within a school for all, perspective segregated
special education institutions are discontinued and all learners who are
regarded as different are accommodated into a homogenous normality,
instead of bringing about change through diversity. The Salamanca
framework asserts that inclusive education is the learning together of all
learners despite differences or difficulties learners may encounter (UNESCO,
1994:11).
e) Education for all (EFA). This focus was initiated by the World Conference on
Education for All in Jomtien Thailand in 1990. The emphasis of the movement
is that large numbers of vulnerable and marginalised groups of learners who
are excluded from education systems worldwide must be given access to
education. A key goal was to ensure that all children must at least have a
primary education by 2015. It also has a vision of acknowledging that
education is a much broader concept than only schooling, beginning with
early childhood, emphasising women’s literacy and recognising the
importance of basic literacy skills as part of lifelong learning. This means that
all learners are to receive basic education of good quality in schools that
embrace inclusive, sincere learning environments (UNESCO, 2005:9). In
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UNESCO’s Guidelines for Inclusion (UNESCO, 2005:13-15) inclusion is
further described as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity
of needs of all learners in all aspects of learning by changing and adapting
strategies and approaches to include all learners equally in the education
system.
Inclusive education is also defined by the United Nations Education, Scientific and
Cultural Organisation (UNESCO, 1994:11) as a constant, supportive integration of
learners with disabilities, including learning disabilities, in the mainstream. This
implies that learners should not merely be physically present in a classroom, but
actively participate in social and curricular activities. Inclusion is therefore about
believing that the only way to learn about living in a diverse and democratic
environment is by participation (Sapon-Shevin, 2007:217). UNESCO (1994:11-14,
cited by Ainscow & Miles, 2008:20) states that increasing participation should occur
Reducing exclusion from the curriculum, and as a consequence of culture and
communities
Restructuring cultures, policies and practices in the school to respond to
diversity
Focusing on presence, participation and achievement of all learners
Inclusion being regarded as a continuous process
Florian and Black-Hawkins (2011:814, 826), however, are of the opinion that there is
still little clarity on defining inclusion, contributing to the confusion that exists on how
inclusive education is actually implemented in practice. In order to address this
confusion they declare that inclusive education should be a procedure that
encourages participation by discouraging exclusion from community, culture and
from the curriculum in mainstream schools and focusing on overcoming barriers,
valuing perspectives and creating a collective vision that respects diversity. They
also assert that how teachers approach lessons and enhance available resources
with the intention of accommodating all learners within mainstream education should
be viewed as an essential aspect to ensure the successful implementation of
inclusive education (Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011:815).
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Within a South African perspective, Education White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001:16) (cf.
2.4.1.2) asserts that inclusive education requires the restructuring of structures,
methodologies and systems to meet the needs of all learners. A pivotal strategy to
achieve this goal is to train support personnel, as well as teachers, with regard to
appropriate teaching strategies to address all learners’ support needs (DoE, 2001:9).
However, it is acknowledged that teaching strategies can be impacted by the
following factors and must be taken into consideration (DoE, 2001:7; Prinsloo,
2011:37, 40; Daniels, 2010:640):
Stereotyping and negative attitudes to differences
Inadequate or inappropriate support services
Non-involvement of parents
Insufficient implementation of legislation and policies
Inadequate communication (e.g. labelling or stereotyping)
Inflexible curriculum
Inappropriate language of learning and teaching (LOLT)
Unsafe environment
Inadequately trained teachers and management personnel
Since it is obvious that there are different views and approaches to inclusion, three
main approaches relevant to this research will be discussed next.
2.2.2 Approaches to inclusive education
Mainstreaming and integration are related concepts often used interchangeably with
inclusion. EWP6 (DoE, 2001:17) describes mainstreaming as giving certain learners
extra support to enable them to ‘fit in’ or be integrated into the ‘normal’ classroom
activities. Mainstreaming is the term used for general education and suggests that all
learners, including those experiencing difficulties, are entitled to similar life
experiences. However, mainstream schools often exclude certain learners as
teachers believe that they do not have the necessary skills and knowledge to teach
learners who experience barriers to learning, and facilities in separate self-contained
environments can provide better learning opportunities for these learners (Swart &
Pettipher, 2011:7). This promotes segregation within the mainstream system. Yet, it
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is still the intention of many countries who promote inclusion to successfully
accommodate learners with disabilities into mainstream education and numerous
strides are being taken in this direction (Armstrong et al., 2011:30; Berlach &
Chambers, 2011:537).
Integration refers to how specialist or additional support can be presented to learners
within the mainstream environment without perpetuating segregation and the
associated discrimination synonymous with traditional approaches (Swart &
Pettipher, 2011:8), such as the medical deficit model (cf. 2.2.3). Rix (2011:276)
defines integration as a tendency to move the focus away from individualised needs
towards the collective. This entails removing all barriers, including social barriers,
ensuring access and participation for all, but still providing the individual with choices
and the means to make changes. A literature study by Bossaert et al. (2013:65)
reveals that literature remains unclear regarding the definition of social integration
concerning learners with more severe barriers to learning (previously termed as
special needs). Though several researchers did propose some definitions, Bossaert
et al. (2013:65) determined that the concept is best described in a summary of
definitions because of different essential components. Social integration could
therefore be viewed as incorporating relationships, peer acceptance, social
interactions, social skills and self-perception of the learner who experiences barriers
to learning.
Yet true inclusion is described by Ainscow et al. (2006:25) as based on the principle
that mainstream schools should provide for all learners irrespective of perceived
intellectual differences or disabilities, and is the process of actively engaging all
learners in the inclusive classroom (Ainscow et al., 2006:25). There should
consequently be no exclusion from the curricula, cultures and communities of local
schools. This requires that cultures, policies and practices in schools need to
restructure so that they respond to the diversity of learner needs (Ainscow & Miles,
Inclusion also incorporates values and beliefs that recognise and respond to diversity
(Nel, 2013:5; Swart & Pettipher, 2011:8). Nel (2013:1) views these values and beliefs
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as accepting everyone for what he or she is: despite differences in appearance,
having different needs and different ways of living, believing, and thinking.
However, research by Thomas and Loxley (2007) as well as Hansen (2012:91)
found that many teachers still believe that full inclusion can be limiting and does not
benefit all learners. Many teachers feel that because learners who experience
barriers demand much attention, other learners can be neglected as a result. This
can be due to the teacher’s own inability to succeed with integrating certain learners
in the classroom or that they genuinely consider special schools to be better
equipped to accommodate specific learners. At the same time, under the guise that
teachers lack knowledge and skills to incorporate all learners in inclusive situations,
schools often still refuse to enrol certain learners (Jordan et al., 2009:536).
Consequently, special educational settings continue to play a dominant role and
despite the drive to promote inclusive education, exclusivity is still evident because
of a steady increase of learners referred to special education (Hansen, 2012:92;
Schoeman, 2012:18).
As the concept of inclusive education is gradually becoming better understood,
significant strides in inclusive development have been made locally and abroad
(Berlach & Chambers, 2011:537).
2.2.3 The medical deficit model versus the socio-ecological model
2.2.3.1 Medical deficit model
Essentially the medical deficit model focuses on diagnosis and treatment, where a
learner is placed in a specialised, segregated environment and labelled according to
a category deemed to fit the learner (Swart & Pettipher, 2011:5; Ferguson,
2008:110). Consequently, exclusion is applied when diagnosing deficits or deviance
within learners, followed by recommending remedial action that highlights individual
difference and learning styles (Gudjonsdottir et al., 2007/8:177). This results in
labelling and stereotyping of learners and is acknowledged today as discriminatory
practice. ‘Special educational needs’ is rooted in this limiting medical deficit model
which was exclusively employed in the previous South African education system.
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Yet, despite worldwide criticism, and the move to inclusive education, it is still in use
today (Swart & Pettipher, 2011:5).
McMenamin (2011:97) brings to light the continued existence of special schools. He
argues that even with an inclusive-backed policy environment in place, it is likely that
this situation will continue. The perseverance of these special schools is often seen
to represent failure of the inclusive education system while others insist that special
schools can be part of an inclusive system (Higgins et al., 2009:471; DoE, 2001:47).
A similar trend is noted in the UK where inclusive practices within the mainstream
have been strengthened by special schools (Ainscow, 2007:135). While South Africa
is facing the daunting task to provide quality education to all learners, with some
controversy regarding provision and delivery of support services, special schools
continue to function in the education system (Walton, 2011:241). This allows us to
question to what extent the development of an inclusive school system addresses
the needs of all learners.
Parsons et al. (2009:54) assert that a reason for the continuation of the medical
model is that a disparity exists between policy legislation and daily experiences of
families with children that have barriers to learning who are driven by their child’s
education needs and own concerns. Parents of children with ‘special needs’ often
choose special schools because of the availability of special therapists (such as
speech therapists, physiotherapists and occupational therapists) as permanent staff
members. Specialised teachers are able to adapt teaching for learners who
experience barriers to learning, often with the use of more appropriate education
equipment, and provide high quality learning and teaching programmes. This,
together with small class size and supportive teaching staff are often determining
factors for parents to enrol their children in special education settings (McMenamin,
2.2.3.2 Socio-ecological model
The socio-ecological model shifts the focus away from the medical model where
deficits are seen as ‘within-the-child’. It asserts that there are also hindrances in the
society and system that prevent learners from achieving their optimal learning
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potential (Nel, 2013:5; Swart & Pettipher, 2011:6). This model acknowledges the
critical role played by the environment and contextual factors in successful human
functioning. This includes socio-economic circumstances, ideological and cultural
contexts, as well as the types, intensity and duration of support that can reduce
active participation (Nel, 2013:15; Soresi et al., 2011:16). It is, therefore, essential
that factors in learners’ environment and community must be taken into
consideration when teaching, assessing and supporting learners who experience
barriers to learning (Nel, 2013:15). In the following table the medical and socio-
ecological model is compared to enhance a better understanding of what both these
models entail.
Table 2.1: Medical model vs. socio-ecological model (Nel et al., 2012:10; Swart & Pettipher,
Medical model Socio-ecological model
Identify difficulty Identify strengths
Assess child in isolation from daily life Consider environment and
Refer to specialists, special schools community of child
and special classes Assess learner within teaching and
The following was not considered: learning environment
socioeconomic circumstances, Classroom offers support
diseases, home language and Teacher reflects on teaching styles,
teaching methods methods and strategies to help
Curriculum inflexible Systems are put in place to support
teachers
2.3 Global development of inclusive education
Since the South African movement towards inclusive education originated within a
global development it is important to provide some background on this.
The global movement towards inclusive education formally started during the 1990
World Conference on Education for All (EFA) held in Jomtien, Thailand. At this
conference the focus on deficiency (i.e. medical model) was noted as upholding
exclusionary practices and denying the rights of all learners to have access to
learning (Nel, 2013:3). However, the EFA movement is not progressing as well as
anticipated (Ainscow & Miles, 2008:30; Miles & Singal, 2010:1). The reason is that
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within certain countries the rights of particular groups, previously discriminated
against, were more emphasised in the movement towards inclusion instead of
engaging in the necessity to improve the teaching and learning environment for all
learners (Miles & Singal, 2010:2). Miles and Singal (2010:3) assert that the EFA
movement could focus more on cultural and contextual appropriate educational
programmes to address social and educational inequities. This would include
enabling teachers to adapt teaching strategies to promote an environment of
participation and acceptance.
After the Jomtien Conference, UNESCO, driven by a global movement on rights of
children and the need for Education for All, adopted the belief that all children have
an equal right to education. In 1994 the Salamanca Statement and Framework for
Action on Special Needs Education came into being at the World Conference on
Special Needs Education advocating that regular schools should provide effective
education to all, where discrimination can be combated (UNESCO, 1994:6). The
document adopted the principle that all learners should be incorporated into inclusive
environments with support provided for those experiencing difficulties (UNESCO,
1994:12; Nel et al., 2012:6). Adaptive and accommodating teaching strategies to
address a diversity of needs was realised globally as a key issue to making teaching
more inclusive after the Jomtien and Salamanca conferences (Florian & Linklater,
Research in some countries has shown that with the adaptations of teaching
strategies inclusive education can be successfully enacted. An example of a
successful attempt to capacitate teachers with regard to an inclusive pedagogy
approach (cf. 3.5.2) is a Scottish project that helped teachers to develop greater
awareness and understanding of issues that affected learning by enabling them to
develop inclusive teaching strategies to deal with different learning difficulties
(Florian et al., 2010:719). Another Scottish example is where multi-sensory teaching
approaches in Scottish mainstream schools encouraged learners with dyslexia to
determine their own learning strategies through using auditory, visual, tactile and
kinaesthetic approaches aimed at visual, phonetic and physical skills development
(Davis & Deponio, 2015:523). In Canada the Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
was implemented in inclusive schools. UDL refers to using a teaching strategy
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designed for all learners. In this case UDL by means of technology was found to
contribute towards self-efficacy of learners experiencing learning difficulties (Katz,
A more in-depth discussion with regard to teaching strategies will be provided in the
next chapter.
2.4 Inclusive education in South Africa
In this section a brief overview of the development towards inclusive education in
South Africa will be provided.
2.4.1 Policy development
2.4.1.1 NCSNET and NCESS
After the political transformation, in its commitment to provide quality education to a
diverse learner population, the South African government appointed the National
Commission on Special Needs in Education and Training (NCSNET) and the
National Committee on Education Support Services (NCESS) in 1996 to investigate
the transition to inclusive education. In their 1997 report the NCSNET/NCESS
adopted an approach stating that the needs of all learners must be identified and
addressed with the aim of removing all barriers to promote learning (DoE, 1997:55;
Lomofsky & Lazarus, 2001: 304).
Among the key findings of this report it was evident that support services, policies
and legislation were inadequate, and a lack of human resource development existed.
The NCNET/ NCESS report asserted that in the previous education system:
the curriculum did not respond to the diverse need of learners;
specialised education and support served only a small percentage of learners
within ‘special’ schools and classes; and
specialised education and support were provided on a racial basis and catered
mostly for the white population (Donohue & Bornman, 2014:2; Walton, 2011:240;
Muthukrishna & Schoeman, 2000:320; DoE, 1997:57).
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This report emphasised that there should be flexibility in the curriculum to
accommodate a diversity of learning needs. A key strategy that was envisioned by
this report and the subsequent EWP6 (DoE, 2001:49) (cf. 2.4.1.2) was to develop
teachers’ professional knowledge to enable them to implement a flexible curriculum
and assessment practices that respond to differences and ensure participation of all.
The vision of the report was that this would result in all teachers being flexible in the
application of the curriculum and being able to critically reflect and evaluate their
teaching practices in teaching learners with diverse needs (DoE, 1997:57).
The NCSNET/NCESS report also determined that terminology such as ‘special
needs’ should not be used anymore, because of its labelling emphasis, but rather
that the term learners who experience ‘barriers to learning’ be utilised. Education
White Paper 6 was ultimately the result of NCSNET and NCESS recommendations
(Nel et al., 2012:7).
2.4.1.2 Education White Paper 6 (EWP6)
Influenced by the country’s Constitution (Act 108 of 1996) founded on values of
equality, human dignity and human rights, as well as the Schools Act (Act 84 of
1996), EWP6 on special needs education: building an inclusive education and
training system was released in 2001. It was developed to create positive conditions
for learners who did not attend school, as well as those experiencing barriers to
learning, in a single and undivided education system (Hay & Beyers, 2011:235).
EWP6 provides a framework and guidelines for the development and implementation
of an inclusive education and training system. It acknowledged that the curriculum
was a significant barrier to learning for certain learners regarding aspects such as
content, language of instruction, teaching style and pace of teaching (DoE, 2001:19).
Key foci of EWP6 were therefore redesigning the curriculum to be flexible in
addressing all learners’ learning needs and capacitating teachers to teach within an
inclusive education environment. It was acknowledged by EWP6 that since teachers
are seen as central role players in effecting inclusive education it is important to
enable them with knowledge and skills to enact inclusion in every classroom (Florian
et al., 2010:719; Forlin & Chambers, 2011:18).
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