This reference book has been written for the student and the general reader. It aims to tackle the basic questions about spelling, punctuation, grammar, and word usage that the student and the general reader are likely to ask. Throughout the book, there are clear explanations and exemplar sentences where they are needed.
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3. Quick Solutions to in
4. If you want to know how... Improve Your Punctuation & Grammar Master the basics of the English language and write with greater confidence Improve Your Written English Master the essentials of grammar, punctuation and spelling and write with greater confidence Writing an Essay How to improve your performance in coursework and examinations Write with Confidence Solutions and examples for everyday writing needs The Handbook of English Punctuation, common practice and usage For full details, please send for a free copy of the latest catalogue to: howtobooks Spring Hill House, Spring Hill Road, Oxford OX5 1RX, United Kingdom [email protected] www.howtobooks.co.uk
5. Quick Solutions to in Angela Burt An A-Zguide to spelling punctuation and grammar howtobooks
7. Introduction Quick Solutions to Common Errors in English is a reference book which has been written for the student and the general reader. It aims to tackle the basic questions about spelling, punctuation, grammar and word usage that the student and the general reader are likely to ask. Throughout the book there are clear explanations, and exemplar sentences where they are needed. When it's helpful to draw attention to spelling rules and patterns, these are given so that the reader is further empowered to deal with hundreds of related words. The aim always has been to make the reader more confident and increasingly self-reliant. This is a fast-track reference book. It is not a dictionary although, like a dictionary, it is arranged alphabetically. It concentrates on problem areas; it anticipates difficulties; it invites cross-references. By exploring punctuation, for example, and paragraphing, it goes far beyond a dictionary's terms of reference. It is not intended to replace a dictionary; it rather supplements it. Once, in an evening class, one of my adult students said, 'If there's a right way to spell a word, I want to know it.' On another occasion, at the end of a punctuation session on possessive apostrophes, a college student said rather angrily, 'Why wasn't I told this years This book has been written to answer all the questions that my students over the years have needed to ask. I hope all who now use it will have their questions answered also and enjoy the confidence and the mastery that this will bring. Angela Burt v
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9. How to use this book For ease of reference, all the entries in this book have been listed alphabetically rather than being divided into separate spelling, usage, punctuation and grammar You will therefore find hypocrisy following hyphens; paragraphing following paraffin; who or whom? following whiskey or whisky?; and so on. Want to check a spelling? Cross-referencing will help you locate words with tricky initial letters. aquaint Wrong spelling. See ACQUAINT. Plural words are given alongside singular nouns, with cross-referencing to relevant rules and patterns. knife (singular) knives (plural). See PLURALS (v). There is also a general section on plurals and another on foreign plurals. If it's the complication of adding an ending that is causing you trouble, you will find some words listed with a useful cross-reference. dining or dinning? dine + ing = dining (as in dining room) din + ing = dinning (noise dinning in ears) See ADDING ENDINGS (i) and (ii). vii
10. How to use this book There are individual entries for confusing endings like -able/-ible; -ance,-ant/-ence,-ent; -cal/-cle; -ise or -ize? and for confusing beginnings like ante-/anti-; for-/ fore-; hyper-/hypo-; inter-/intra- and many others. If you're hesitating between two words in a tricky pair (like contagious or infectious?; disinterested or uninterested?; imply or infer?; irony or sarcasm?), turn to whichever word is listed first alphabetically. There you will find a full explanation of the difference in meaning and usage. There will be a cross-reference from the word listed second alphabetically. misplace See DISPLACE OR MISPLACE?. The functions of the different punctuation marks are discussed under individual entries; apostrophes ('); brackets (round and square); capital letters; colons (:); dashes (-); exclamation marks (!); full stops (.); hyphens (-); inverted commas/quotation marks/ speech marks (single '' and double " "); semicolons (;); and question marks (?). Additional entries include commands; contractions; end stops; and indirect/reported speech. As well as the general entry, contractions, commonly used contractions are listed individually as the punctuation of these causes so much confusion. isn't Place the apostrophe carefully. (not is'nt) viii
11. How to use this book Many grammatical queries can be listed individually or as a choice between two or three possibilities. Among these are: as or like?; consist in or consist of?; different from/to/than; due to or owing to?; fewer or less?; I/me/myself; lay or lie?; passed or past?; shall or will?; should or would?; who or whom?. between you and I Incorrect. Write: between you and me. See PREPOSITIONS. theirselves Incorrect formation. See THEMSELVES. At other times, however, some grammatical points have necessarily to be grouped under general technical headings which sound rather forbidding. (The entries themselves, I hope, will make all clear!) These entries are too long to be quoted here. I suggest that you look them up to see whether they deal with areas that cause you problems: comparative and superlative double negatives nouns paragraphing participles possessive pronouns prepositions sequence of tenses split infinitives subjunctive ix
12. How to use this book As well as using this book as a reference text (its unwritten subtitle is A Friend at Your Elbow!), I hope you will sometimes be tempted to browse and to follow up cross-references. Our language is a fascinating one and well repays careful attention. There will come a time when you no longer need the guidance this reference book offers. That will be real At the end of the book there are three appendices for further reference: Appendix A: Literary terms Appendix B: Parts of speech Appendix C: Planning, drafting and proofreading X
13. ^K^H abandoned, abandoning, abandonment (not -bb-) (not -bb-) abbreviated, abbreviating, abbreviation (not -b-) See CONTRACTIONS. Adjectives ending in -able or -ible can be difficult to spell because both endings sound identical. You'll always need to be on guard with these words and check each word individually when you are in doubt, but here are some useful guidelines: (i) Generally use -able when the companion word ends in -ation: abominable, abomination irritable, irritation (ii) Generally use -ible when the companion word ends in -ion: comprehensible, comprehension digestible, digestion (iii) Use -able after hard c and hard g: practicable (c sounds like k) navigable (hard g) (iv) Use -ible after soft c and soft g: forcible (c sounds like s) legible (g sounds like j) See also ADDING ENDINGS (n); SOFT c AND SOFT G. 1
14. Both spellings are correct. Use either but be consistent within one piece of writing. This is a favourite word in spelling quizzes. (not absess or abcess) absent (not absc-) absolutely (not absoloute, absoloutely) absorption. Notice how b changes to p here. abstract nouns See NOUNS. accept or except? We ACCEPT your apology. Everybody was there EXCEPT Stephen. accessary or accessory? If you want to preserve the traditional distinction in meaning between these two words, use ACCESSARY to refer to someone associated with a crime and ACCESSORY to refer to something that is added (a fashion accessory or car accessories). However, the distinction has now become blurred and it is perfectly acceptable to use one spelling to cover both meanings. Of the two, accessory is the more widely used, but both are correct. (not -able) The adverb is formed by adding -ly to accidental. (not accidently) 2
15. ADAPTER OR ADAPTOR? This is a favourite word in spelling quizzes and is frequently seen misspelt on painted signs. (not accomodation or accommadation) Wrong spelling. See ACROSS. (not -mm-) achieved, achieving, achievement (not -ei-) See also ADDING ENDINGS (ii.); El/IE SPELLING RULE. Both spellings are correct but be consistent within one piece of writing. acquainted (not aq-) (not -ence) acquiesced, acquiescing (not aq-) (not -ance) acquired, acquiring, acquisition (not aq-) Note that there are three syllables here, (not acrage) (not accross) adapter or adaptor? Traditional usage would distinguish between these two words and reserve -er for the person (an adapter 3
16. of novels, for instance) and -or for the piece of electrical equipment. However, the distinction has become very blurred and the two spellings are considered by many authorities to be interchangeable. Use either for both meanings but be consistent within a single piece of writing. addendum (singular) addenda (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. adding endings Usually endings (suffixes) can be added to base words without any complications. You just add them and that is that! e.g. iron + ing = ironing steam + er = steamer list + less = listless However, there are four groups of words which need especial care. Fortunately, there are some straightforward rules which save your learning thousands of words individually. (i) The 1-1-1 rule This rule applies to: words of ONE syllable ending with ONE consonant preceded by ONE vowel, e.g. drop, flat, sun, win When you add an ending beginning with a consonant to a 1-1-1 word, there is no change to the base word: drop + let = droplet flat + ly = flatly win + some = winsome See CONSONANTS. When you add an ending beginning with a vowel to a 1-1-1 word, you double the final letter of the base word: 4
17. ADDING ENDINGS drop + ed = dropped flat + est = flattest win + ing = winning sun + *y = sunny *y counts as a vowel when it sounds like i or e. See VOWELS. Treat qu as one letter: quit + ing = quitting quip + ed = quipped Don't double final w and x. They would look very odd and so we have correctly: tax + ing = taxing paw + ed = pawed (ii) The magic -e rule This rule applies to all words ending with a silent -e. e.g. hope, care, achieve, sincere, separate When you add an ending beginning with a consonant, keep the -e: hope + ful = hopeful care + less = careless sincere + ly = sincerely separate + ly = separately achieve + ment = achievement When you add an ending beginning with a vowel, drop the -e: hope + ing = hoping care + er = carer sincere + ity = sincerity separate + ion = separation achieve + ed = achieved Do, however, keep the -e in words like singeing (different from singing) and dyeing (different 5
18. ADDING ENDINGS from dying) and whenever you need to keep the identity of the base word clear (e.g. shoeing, canoeing). Do remember to keep the -e with soft c and soft g words. It's the e that keeps them soft (courageous, traceable). (See SOFT c AND SOFT G.) Don't keep the -e with these eight exceptions to the rule: truly, duly, ninth, argument, wholly, awful, whilst, wisdom. (iii) -y rule This rule applies to all words ending in -y. Look at the letter before the -y in the base word. It doesn't matter at all what kind of ending you are adding. When you add an ending to a word ending in a vowel + y, keep the y: portray + ed = portrayed employ + ment = employment When you add an ending to a word ending in a consonant + y, change the y to i: try +al = trial empty + er = emptier pity + less = pitiless lazy + ness = laziness Do keep the y when adding -ing. Two i's together would look very odd, despite our two words ski-ing and taxi-ing. try + ing = trying empty + ing = emptying Don't apply the rule in these fourteen cases: daily, gaily, gaiety, laid, paid, said, slain, babyhood, shyly, shyness, dryness, slyness, wryly, wry ness. 6
19. ADDING ENDINGS (iv) The 2-1-1 rule This rule applies to: words of TWO syllables ending with ONE consonant preceded by ONE vowel. With this rule, it all depends on which syllable of the word is stressed. The 2-1-1 words below are stressed on the first syllable, and both vowel and consonant endings are added without any complications: gossip gossiping target targeted limit limitless eager eagerness But note that kidnap, outfit, worship, always double their final letter: kidnapped, outfitter, worshipping Take care with 2-1-1 words which are stressed on the second syllable. There is no change when you add a consonant ending: forget + fill = forgetful equip + ment = equipment Double the final consonant of the base word when you add a vowel ending: forget + ing = forgetting equip + ed = equipped forbid + en = forbidden begin + er = beginner This rule is really valuable but you must be aware of some exceptions: 2-1-1 words ending in -1 seem to have a rule all of their own. Whether the stress is on the first or the second syllable, there is no change when 7
20. a consonant ending is added: quarrel + some = quarrelsome instal + ment = instalment Double the -1 when adding a vowel ending: quarrel + ing = quarrelling instal + ed = installed excel + ent = excellent ^ Notice how the change of stress in these words affects the spelling: confer conferred conferring conference defer deferred deferring deference infer inferred inferring inference prefer preferred preferring preference refer referred referring reference transfer transferred transferring transference See also -ABLE/-IBLE; -ANCE,-ANT/-ENCE,-ENT; CAL/-CLE; -FUL;-LY. (not adr-) adieu (singular) adieus or adieux (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. Both spellings are correct. Wrong spelling. See ADDRESS. advantage + ous Keep the -e in this instance. See SOFT c AND SOFT G. adverse or averse? These two words have different meanings. 8
21. AGEING OR AGING? The ferries were cancelled owing to ADVERSE weather conditions. (= unfavourable) She is not AVERSE to publicity. (= opposed) advertise + ment See ADDING ENDINGS (ii). advice or advise? My ADVICE is to forget all about it. (noun = recommendation) What would you ADVISE me to do? (verb = recommend) adviser or advisor? Adviser is the traditionally correct British spelling. Advisor is more common in American English. (not -ery) Use the same spelling for the noun (a television AERIAL) and the adjective (an AERIAL photograph). affect or effect? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide: Heavy drinking will AFFECT your liver, (verb) The EFFECT on her health was immediate, (noun) The new manager plans to EFFECT sweeping changes, (verb = to bring about) (not affraid) ageing or aging? Both spellings are correct but many would prefer ageing as it keeps the identity of the base word (age) more easily recognised. See ADDING ENDINGS (ii). 9
22. Strictly speaking, aggravate means to make worse. His rudeness AGGRAVATED an already explosive situation. It is, however, widely used in the sense of to irritate or to annoy. Be aware that some authorities would regard this second usage as incorrect. (not agr-) agree to/agree with The choice of preposition alters the meaning of the verb: I AGREED TO do what he advised. I AGREED TO all the conditions. I AGREED WITH all they said. See PREPOSITIONS. (not agreable) For grammatical agreement, see SINGULAR OR PLURAL?. Wrong spelling. See AGGRESSIVE. alga (singular) algae (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. (not -dge) alley or ally? An ALLEY is a little lane. An ALLY is a friend, alley (singular), alleys (plural) ally (singular), allies (plural) See PLURALS (iii). 10
23. ALL TOGETHER OR ALTOGETHER? all most or almost? There is a difference in meaning. Use these exemplar sentences as a guide: They were ALL (= everyone) MOST kind. The child was ALMOST ( = nearly) asleep. allowed or aloud? There is a difference in meaning. Use these exemplar sentences as a guide: Are we ALLOWED (= permitted) to smoke in here? I was just thinking ALOUD (= out loud). all ready or already? There is a difference in meaning. Use these exemplar sentences as a guide: We are ALL (= everyone) READY. It is ALL (= everything) READY. She was ALREADY dead (= by then). all right or alright? Traditional usage would consider ALL RIGHT to be correct and ALRIGHT to be incorrect. However, the use of 'alright' is so widespread that some would see it as acceptable although the majority of educated users would take care to avoid it. all so or also? There is a difference in meaning. Use these exemplar sentences as a guide: You are ALL (= everyone) SO kind. You are ALSO (= in addition) generous. all together or altogether? There is a difference in meaning. Use these exemplar sentences as a guide: They were ALL (= everybody) huddled TOGETHER for warmth. 11
24. ALLUDE OR ELUDE? His situation is ALTOGETHER (= totally) different from yours. allude or elude? There is a difference in meaning. ALLUDE means to refer to indirectly. ELUDE means to evade capture or recall. allusion, delusion or illusion? There is a difference in meaning. An ALLUSION is an indirect reference. A DELUSION is a false belief (often associated with a mental disorder). An ILLUSION is a deceptive appearance. all ways or always? There is a difference in meaning. These three routes are ALL (= each of them) WAYS into town. She ALWAYS (= at all times) tells the truth. See ALL MOST OR ALMOST?. a lot Write as two words, not as one. Bear in mind that this construction is slang and not to be used in a formal context. See ALLOWED OR ALOUD?. See ALL READY OR ALREADY?. altar or alter? There is a difference in meaning. The bride and groom stood solemnly before the ALTAR. 12
25. AMBIGUITY Do you wish to ALTER (= change) the arrangements? alternate or alternative? We visit our grandparents on ALTERNATE Saturdays. (= every other Saturday) I ALTERNATE between hope and despair. (= have each mood in turn) An ALTERNATIVE plan would be to go by boat. (= another possibility) The ALTERNATIVES are simple: work or go hungry. (= two choices) Strictly speaking, the choice can be between only two alternatives (one choice or the other). However, the word is frequently used more loosely and this precise definition is becoming lost. See ALL TOGETHER OR ALTOGETHER?. Alzheimer's disease (not Alze-) (not -mm-) Always try to anticipate any possible confusion on the part of your reader. Check that you have made your meaning absolutely clear. (i) Bear in mind that pronouns can be very vague. Consider this sentence: My brother told his friend that HE had won first prize in the local photographic exhibition. Who is 'he', my brother or his friend? Rewrite more clearly: 13
26. (a) My brother congratulated his friend on winning first prize in the local photographic exhibition. (b) My brother, delighted to have won first prize in the local photographic exhibition, told his friend. The other possibility is rather clumsy but is otherwise clear: (c) My brother told his friend that he (his friend) had won first prize. (d) My brother told his friend that he (my brother) had won first prize. (ii) Position the adverb ONLY with great care. It will refer to the word nearest to it, usually the word following. This may not be the meaning you intended. See how crucial to the meaning the position of 'only' can be: ONLY Sean eats fish on Fridays. (= No one else but Sean eats fish on Fridays.) Sean ONLY eats fish on Fridays. (= Sean does nothing else to the fish on Fridays but eat it. He doesn't buy it, cook it, look at it, smell it...) Sean eats ONLY fish on Fridays. (= Sean eats nothing but fish on Fridays.) Sean eats fish ONLY on Fridays. Sean eats fish on Fridays ONLY. (= Sean eats fish on this one day in the week and never on any other.) (iii) Take care with the positioning of BADLY. This room needs cleaning BADLY. Does it? Or does it not need cleaning well? Rewrite like this: 14
27. AMBIGUITY This room BADLY needs cleaning. (iv) Beware of causing initial bewilderment by not introducing a comma to indicate a pause. The shabby little riverside cafe was empty and full of wasps and flies. Empty and full? The shabby little riverside cafe was empty, and full of wasps and flies. See COMMAS (ix). (v) Avoid the danger of writing nonsense! DRIVING slowly along the road, THE CASTLE dominated the landscape. The castle is driving? Rewrite: As we drove slowly along the road, we saw how the castle dominated the landscape. COOKED slowly, the FAMILY will enjoy the cheaper cuts of meat. Rewrite: If the cheaper cuts of meat are cooked slowly, the family will enjoy them. See PARTICIPLES. (vi) Make sure the descriptive details describe the right noun! For sale: 1995 Peugeot 205 - one owner with power-assisted steering. Rewrite: For sale: 1995 Peugeot 205 with power-assisted steering - one owner. 15
28. AMEND OR EMEND? amend or emend? Both words mean 'to make changes in order to improve'. Use AMEND or EMEND when referring to the correction of written or printed text. Use AMEND in a wider context such as AMENDING the law or AMENDING behaviour. Wrong spelling. See AMOUNT. (not amoung) Either form can be used. among or between? Use BETWEEN when something is shared by two people. Use AMONG when it is shared by three or more. Share the sweets BETWEEN the two of you. Share the sweets AMONG yourselves. However, BETWEEN is used with numbers larger than two when it means an exact geographical location or when it refers to relationships. Sardinia lies BETWEEN Spain, Algeria, Corsica and Italy. It will take a long time before the rift BETWEEN the five main parties heals. amoral or immoral? There is a difference in meaning. AMORAL means not being governed by moral laws, acting outside them, (note -m-) IMMORAL means breaking the moral laws, (note -mm-) 16
29. -ANCE,-ANT/-ENCE,-ENT Wrong spelling. See AMONG. (not ammount) amount or number? AMOUNT is used with non-count nouns: a small AMOUNT of sugar; a surprising AMOUNT of gossip. NUMBER is used with plural nouns: a NUMBER of mistakes; a NUMBER of reasons. (not -yze as in American English) analysis (singular) analyses (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. Words with these endings are difficult to spell and you'll always need to be on your guard with them. Check each word individually when in doubt, but here are some useful guidelines: (i) People are generally -ant: attendant, lieutenant, occupant, sergeant, tenant (but there are exceptions like superintendent, president, resident...). (ii) Use -ance, -ant, where the companion word ends in -ation: dominance, dominant, domination; variance, variant, variation. (iii) Use -ence, -ent after qu: consequence, consequent; eloquence, eloquent. (iv) Use -ance, -ant after hard c or hard g: significance, significant (c sounds like k); elegance, elegant (hard g). 17
30. (v) Use -ence, -ent after soft c or soft g: innocence, innocent (c sounds like s); intelligent, intelligence (g sounds like j). See SOFT c AND SOFT G. Many of us have been taught never to begin a sentence with AND or BUT. Generally speaking this is good advice. Both words are conjunctions and will therefore be busy joining words within the sentence: I should love to come AND I look forward to the party very much. They wanted to come BUT sadly they had to visit a friend in hospital some miles away. However, there are some occasions when you may need the extra emphasis that starting a new sentence with AND or BUT would give. If you have a good reason to break the rules, do so! anecdote or antidote? An ANECDOTE is a short, amusing account of something that has happened. An ANTIDOTE is a medicine taken to counteract a poison. Wrong spelling. See ANXIETY. Wrong spelling. See ANXIOUS. annex or annexe? To ANNEX is to take possession of a country or part of a country. An ANNEX is another word for an appendix in an official document. An ANNEXE is a building added to the main building. 18
31. ANTENNA Wrong spelling. See ANOINT. announced, announcing, announcer, announcement (not -n-) annoyed, annoying, annoyance (not anoy or annoied) annulled, annulling, annulment See ADDING ENDINGS (iv). (not -nn-) Wrong spelling. See ANNOUNCE. Wrong spelling. See ANNOY. ANTE- means before, antenatal = before birth ANTI- means against, antifreeze = against freezing This means earlier in time or an ancestor, (not anti-) See ANTE-/ANTI-. This means very old-fashioned and primitive, literally 'before the flood of Noah', (not anti-) See ANTE-/ANTI-. This word has two plurals, each used in a different sense: Use ANTENNAE to refer to insects. 19
32. Use ANTENNAS to refer to television aerials. See FOREIGN PLURALS. (not ante-) See ANTE-/ANTI-. See ANECDOTE OR ANTIDOTE?. (not -rh-) (not ante-) See ANTE-/ANTI-. (not angs-) (not angs-) Both spellings are correct, (not -pp) apologies (plural) See PLURALS (iii). Wrong spelling. See UPON. (i) Apostrophes can be used to show that letters have been omitted: in contractions didn't o'clock you've won't 20
33. APOSTROPHES in poetry o'er vales and hills where'er you walk in dialect 'Ere's 'Arry. in retail pick 'n' mix salt 'n' vinegar (ii) Apostrophes can be used to show ownership. Follow these simple guidelines and you'll never put the apostrophe in the wrong place. Singular nouns or 'owners' The tail of the dog The dog's tail Who 'owns' the tail? the dog Put the apostrophe after the owner. the dog' Add -s. the dog's Add what is 'owned'. the dog's tail The smile of the princess The princess's smile Who 'owns' the smile? the princess Put the apostrophe after the owner. the princess' Add -s. the princess's Add what is 'owned'. the princess's smile With proper names ending in -s, you have a choice, depending upon how the name is pronounced. Keats' poetry or Keats's poetry But St James's Square, London, SW1 St James' (two syllables) St James's (three syllables) 21
34. Plural nouns or 'owners' Don't worry about whether you use 's or s' in the plural. It will sort itself out. The tails of the dogs The dogs' tails Who 'owns' the tails? the dogs Put the apostrophe after the owners. the dogs' Add -s if there isn't one. (no need here) Add what is 'owned'. the dogs' tails The laughter of the women The women's laughter Who 'owns' the laughter? the women Put the apostrophe after the owners. the women' Add -s if there isn't one. the women's Add what is 'owned'. the women's laughter And so, when reading, you will be able to distinguish singular and plural 'owners'. The princess's suitors. The princesses' suitors. The 'owner' is the word before the apostrophe. (iii) Apostrophes are also used in condensed expressions of time. The work of a moment. A moment's work. The work of three years. Three years' work. If you follow the guidelines in (ii) above, you will never make a mistake. appalled, appalling (not -aul-) See also ADDING ENDINGS (iv). 22
35. AOUAINT (not -ence) This word has two plurals, each used in a different sense. Use APPENDIXES in an anatomical sense. Use APPENDICES when referring to supplementary sections in books or formal documents. See also FOREIGN PLURALS. Wrong spelling. See APOLOGISE/APOLOGIZE. Wrong spelling. See APOLOGY. appraise or apprise? To APPRAISE is to evaluate. To APPRISE is to inform. There are three distinct meanings of this word. I APPRECIATE your kindness (= recognise gratefully). I APPRECIATE that you have had a difficult time lately (= understand). My cottage HAS APPRECIATED in value already (= increased). Some people would choose to avoid the second use above (understand, realise) but the verb is now widely used in this sense and this has become acceptable. approached, approaching (not apr-) Wrong spelling. See ACQUAINT. 23
36. Wrong spelling. See ACQUAINTANCE. aquarium (singular) aquaria or aquariums (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. Wrong spelling. See ACQUIESCE. Wrong spelling. See ACQUIESCENCE. Wrong spelling. See ACQUIRE. Wrong spelling. See ARRANGE. arbiter or arbitrator? An ARBITER is a judge or someone with decisive influence (an arbiter of fashion). In addition, an ARBITER may intervene to settle a dispute (-er). An ARBITRATOR is someone who is officially appointed to judge the rights and wrongs of a dispute (-or). arbitrator or mediator? An ARBITRATOR reaches a judgement but is not necessarily obeyed. A MEDIATOR attempts to bring two opposing sides together and to settle a dispute. There are two interchangeable plural forms: archipelagoes, archipelagos. (not artic, although frequently mispronounced as such) 24
37. ASPIRIN (not arguement) arranged, arranging, arrangement (not -r-) See ADDING ENDINGS (ii). American: artifact Wrong spelling. See ARCTIC. (not -cal) See -CAL/-CLE. artist or artiste? Traditionally, an ARTIST is skilled in one or more of the fine arts (painting, for example, or sculpture). Traditionally, the term ARTISTE is reserved for a performer or entertainer (a music-hall ARTISTE). However, ARTIST is now being used to cover both meanings in the sense of 'skilled practitioner', and ARTISTE is becoming redundant. as or like? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide: You look AS if you have seen a ghost. You look AS though you have seen a ghost. AS I expected, he's missed the train. You look LIKE your mother. Wrong spelling. See ASTHMA. (not ashphalt, as it is frequently mispronounced) (not asprin, as it is frequently mispronounced) 25
38. (not assasin or asassin) Wrong spelling. See ASTHMA. assume or presume? To ASSUME something to be the case is to take it for granted without any proof. To PRESUME something to be the case is to base it on the evidence available. assurance or insurance? Insurance companies distinguish between these two terms. ASSURANCE is the technical term given for insurance against a certainty (e.g. death) where payment is guaranteed. INSURANCE is the technical term given for insurance against a risk (such as fire, burglary, illness) where payment is made only if the risk materialises. (not asma or assma) astrology or astronomy? ASTROLOGY is the study of the influence of the stars and planets on human life and fortune. ASTRONOMY is the scientific study of the stars and planets. (not athelete) (not atheletics) attached, attaching, attachment (not -tch) (not -able) 26
39. AXIS (not -ance) aural or oral? AURAL refers to the ears and hearing. ORAL refers to the mouth and speaking. In speech these words can be very confusing as they are pronounced identically. (not authorative) autobiography or biography? An AUTOBIOGRAPHY is an account of his or her life by the author. A BIOGRAPHY is an account of a life written by someone else. automaton (singular) automata, automatons (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. avenge or revenge? The words are very close in meaning but AVENGE is often used in the sense of exacting just retribution, punishing a wrong done to another. Hamlet felt bound to AVENGE his father's death. REVENGE is often used in the sense of 'getting one's own back' for a petty offence. See ADVERSE or AVERSE?. Notice -wkw-. The spelling itself looks awkward! axis (singular) axes (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. 27
40. ia (not -i-) This word is an exception to the -y rule. See ADDING ENDINGS (iii). (not -tch-) bacillus (singular) bacilli (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. bacterium (singular) bacteria (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. This word is often carelessly positioned with disastrous effects on meaning. See AMBIGUITY (iii). banisters, bannisters (plural) Although the first spelling is more widely used, both spellings are correct. (not -ian) basic + ally (not basicly) Wrong spelling. See BACHELOR. bath or bathe? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide: I have a BATH every morning (= I have a wash in the bath). I BATH the baby every day (= wash in a bath). I have had a new BATH fitted. 28
41. BENEFIT We BATHE every day (= swim). BATHE the wound with disinfectant (= cleanse). We have a BATHE whenever we can (= a swim). beach or beech? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide: Budleigh Salterton has a stony BEACH. BEECH trees retain their leaves in autumn. Use your knowledge of French beau to help you. (not befor) Note these forms and spellings: I begin, I am beginning. I began, I have begun. (not -n-) (not -ie-) See EI/IE SPELLING RULE. (not -ei) See EI/IE SPELLING RULE. believed, believing, believer See EI/IE SPELLING RULE. See ADDING ENDINGS (ii). benefited, benefiting It is a common mistake to use -tt-. 29
42. BERTH OR BIRTH? berth or birth? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide: We have a spare BERTH on our boat. We are proud to announce the BIRTH of a daughter. beside or besides? Use BESIDE in the sense of next to, by the side of: Your glasses are BESIDE your bed. May I sit BESIDE you? Use BESIDES in the sense of also, as well as: BESIDES, I can't afford it. BESIDES being very clever, Ann also works hard. See AMONG OR BETWEEN?. between you and I Incorrect. Write: between you and me. See PREPOSITIONS. This prefix means 'two'. Hence bicycle bifocals bigamy, and so on. Note, however, that some words beginning with 'bi' can be ambiguous. See BIMONTHLY and BIWEEKLY. See also BIANNUAL OR BIENNIAL?. biannual or biennial? BIANNUAL means twice a year (not -n-). BIENNIAL means every two years (a biennial festival) or taking two years to grow (horticultural, etc), (not -ual) 30
43. BIWEEKLY bi + cycle (not bycycle or bycicle) bidding or biding? bid + ing = bidding The BIDDING at the auction was fast and furious. BIDDING farewell, the knight cantered away. bide + ing = biding Her critics were just BIDING their time. See ADDING ENDINGS (i) and (ii). Wrong spelling. See BEIGE. See BIANNUAL OR BIENNIAL?. Avoid using BIMONTHLY as it has two conflicting meanings. It can mean both every two months and also twice a month. (Compare BIWEEKLY.) (not -nn-) See AUTOBIOGRAPHY OR BIOGRAPHY?. (not -iu-) Wrong spelling. See BUILDING. bivouacked, bivouacking See SOFT c AND SOFT G. This word has two conflicting meanings and is 31
44. perhaps best avoided. It can mean both every two weeks (i.e. fortnightly) and also twice a week. (Compare BIMONTHLY.) (not -22-) blond or blonde? BLOND is used to describe men's hair. BLOND/BLONDE is used to describe women's hair. A BLONDE is a woman. board or bored? A BOARD is a piece of wood, also a committee or similar group of people. To BOARD means to get on (train, etc.) and also to pay for living in someone's house and having food provided. BORED means uninterested. boarder or border? A BOARDER is a person who pays to live in someone's house or school. A BORDER is the edge or boundary of something. (not boistrous, although often mispronounced as two syllables) Both spellings are correct, although the second spelling is more commonly used. See BOARDER OR BORDER?. See BOARD OR BORED?. bored by, bored with (not bored or) 32
45. BOUGHT OR BROUGHT? born or borne? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide: Dickens was BORN in Portsmouth. She has BORNE five children. He has BORNE a heavy burden of guilt all his life. borrow or lend? May I BORROW your pen? (= use your pen temporarily) Please LEND me your pen. (= pass it to me and allow me to use it) both... and Take care with the positioning of each half of this paired construction. Each must introduce grammatically similar things: He is BOTH clever AND hardworking. (not: He both is clever and hardworking!) He BOTH paints AND sculpts. He bought BOTH the gardening tools AND the DIY kit. Notice, however, the ambiguity in the last example. It could mean that there were just two gardening tools and he bought both of them. In the case of possible confusion, always replace: He bought the gardening tools and also the DIY kit. He bought the two gardening tools and also the DIY kit. He bought both of the gardening tools and also the DIY kit. bought or brought? BOUGHT is the past tense of to buy. She BOUGHT eggs, bacon and bread. BROUGHT is the past tense of to bring. 33
46. They BROUGHT their books home. (not -ey) See ADDING ENDINGS (ii). Round brackets enclose additional information which the writer wants to keep separate from the main body of the sentence. Jane Austen (born in 1775) died in Winchester. My neighbour (have you met her?) has won £250,000. Notice how sentences in brackets are not fully punctuated. They don't begin with a capital letter or have a full stop at the end if they occur within another sentence as in the example above. They do, however, have a question mark or an exclamation mark, if appropriate. Square brackets indicate that the material has been added to the original by another writer: When I [Hilaire Belloc] am dead, I hope it may be said: 'His sins were scarlet, but his books were read.' breath or breathe? BREATH is the noun, and rhymes with 'death'. He called for help with his dying BREATH. BREATHE is the verb and rhymes with 'seethe'. BREATHE deeply and fill those lungs! brief, briefly (not -ei-) (not -ian) 34
47. BUT (not Britanny) broach or brooch? You BROACH a difficult topic or BROACH a bottle. You wear a BROOCH. (not brocolli) (not brocken) See BOUGHT OR BROUGHT?. buffalo (singular) buffalo, buffaloes (plural) See PLURALS (iv). (not -iu-) Wrong spelling. See BUSINESS. bureaux, bureaus (plural) Both forms are correct. See FOREIGN PLURALS. (not -sy) (not burgular, as often mispronounced) Both forms are correct. (not buisness) See AND/BUT. 35
48. Use these exemplar sentences as a guide: I need to BUY some new jeans. The book is BY Charlotte Bronte. Wait BY the gate. The children rushed BY. 36
49. H cactus (singular) cactuses or cacti (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. (not -ie-) Adjectives end in -cal. Nouns end in -cle. e.g. critical article logical bicycle magical circle musical cubicle nautical cuticle physical miracle practical particle theatrical spectacle tropical uncle whimsical vehicle (not -er) calf (singular) calves (plural) See PLURALS (v). callous or callus? CALLOUS means cruel, insensitive, not caring about how others feel. CALLUS means a hard patch of skin or tissue. Interestingly, skin may be CALLOUSED (made hard) or CALLUSED (having calluses). can or may? Strictly speaking, CAN means 'being able' and MAY means 'having permission'. It is best to preserve this 37
50. CANING OR CANNING? distinction in formal contexts. However, informally, CAN is used to cover both meanings: You CAN go now (= are permitted). caning or canning? cane + ing = caning CANING is now banned in all schools. Can + ing = canning The CANNING factory is closing down. See ADDING ENDINGS (i) and (ii). (not -nn-) cannon or canon? A CANON is a cleric. A CANNON is a large gun. cannot or can not? Both forms are acceptable but the second is rarely seen. canoed, canoeing, canoeist See ADDING ENDINGS (ii). See CANNON OR CANON?. Contraction of CANNOT. canvas or canvass? CANVAS is a rough cloth. To CANVASS is to ask for votes. capital letters Use a capital letter in these circumstances: to begin a sentence: 38
51. CAPITAL LETTERS My father will be fifty tomorrow, to begin sentences of direct speech: 'You will be sorry for this in the morning,' she said. She said, 'You will be sorry for this in the morning. You never learn.' for the pronoun T wherever it comes in the sentence: You know that I have no money, for all proper nouns - names of: people (Mary Browne) countries (Malta) languages (French) religious festivals (Easter, Diwali) firms (Express Cleaners) organisations (the British Broadcasting Corporation) historical periods (the Renaissance) (the Neolithic Period) days of the week (Monday) months of the year (September) but not usually the seasons Note these adjectives derived from proper nouns also have a capital letter: a Jewish festival; a German poet However, the capital is dropped when the connection with the proper noun becomes lost: Venetian blinds, french windows Note also that titles are capitalised only when part of a proper noun: Bishop Christopher Budd, otherwise the bishop Aunt Gladys, otherwise my aunt 39
52. CAPITAL LETTERS Captain Llewellyn, otherwise the captain to begin lines of poetry (although some poets like e.e. cummings dispense with this convention) to mark the first word and the subsequent key words in titles: The Taming of the Shrew An Old Wives' Tale for emphasis: And then - BANG! for some acronyms and initialisms: NATO UNESCO CAFOD OXFAM PTO RSVP Note that some acronyms have now become words in their own right and are no longer written in capitals: laser, sauna, radar. Note also that some initialisms are usually written in lower case: i.e., e.g., c/o, wpm. for the Deity as a mark of respect and for sacred books: God, Jesus Christ, the Holy Spirit, the Almighty, Allah, Jehovah, Yahweh the Bible, the Koran, the Vedas to begin each word in an address: Mrs Anna Sendall 10 Furze Crescent ALPHINGTON Hants PD6 9EF 40
53. CARRYING for the salutation in a letter (first word and key words only) and for the first letter of the complimentary close: Dear Sir Dear Mrs Hughes My dear niece Yours faithfully Yours sincerely With much love With best wishes capital punishment or corporal punishment? CAPITAL PUNISHMENT = death CORPORAL PUNISHMENT = beating (not -p-) This is the only verb in the English language of more than one syllable that must end in -ize. (not -ian) Wrong spelling. See CAPPUCCINO. (not -rr-) cargo (singular) cargoes (plural) See PLURALS (iv). (not t -rr-, not -b-) Wrong spelling. See CAREER. carry + ing 41
54. CAST OR CASTE? See ADDING ENDINGS (iii). cast or caste? Use CAST for a group of actors in a play and for a plaster CAST and a CAST in an eye. Use CASTE when referring to a social group in Hindu society. caster or castor? Both caster sugar and castor sugar are correct. Both sugar caster and sugar castor are correct. Both casters and castors can be used when referring to the little wheels fixed to the legs of furniture. But castor oil, not caster oil. Wrong spelling. See CATEGORICAL. Wrong spelling. See CATEGORY. (not -rh) (not -y) categorically (not cata-) category (singular) categories (plural) (not cata-) (not -flour) (not -ie-) See EI/IE SPELLING RULE. (not Sello-) 42
55. CEREMONY censer, censor or censure? A CENSER is a container in which incense is burnt during a religious ceremony. A CENSOR is a person who examines plays, books, films, etc. before deciding if they are suitable for public performance or publication. To CENSOR is to do the work of a CENSOR. CENSURE is official and formal disapproval or condemnation of an action. To CENSURE is to express this condemnation in a formal written or spoken statement. centenarian or centurion? A CENTENARIAN is someone who is at least 100 years old. A CENTURION was the commander of a company of 100 men in the ancient Roman army. century (singular) centuries (plural) (not centua-) See PLURALS (iii). cereal or serial? CEREAL is food processed from grain. A SERIAL is a book or radio or television performance delivered in instalments. ceremonial or ceremonious? Both adjectives come from the noun CEREMONY. CEREMONIAL describes the ritual used for a formal religious or public event (a CEREMONIAL occasion). CEREMONIOUS describes the type of person who likes to behave over-formally on social occasions. It is not altogether complimentary (a CEREMONIOUS wave of the hand). ceremony (singular) ceremonies (plural) See PLURALS (iii). 43
56. CERTAIN OR CURTAIN certain or curtain CERTAIN means sure. Are you CERTAIN that he apologised? CURTAINS are window drapes. Do draw the CURTAINS. Note that the c sounds like s in certain and like k in curtain. See SOFT c AND SOFT G. (not t -gable) See SOFT c AND SOFT G. chaotic (not t charachter) chateau/chateau (singular) chateaux or chateaux (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. check or cheque? Use these exemplar sentences as a guide: Always CHECK your work. May I pay by CHEQUE? (not 'check' as in the United States) cherub (singular) This word has two plurals. Cherubim is reserved exclusively for the angels often portrayed as little children with wings. Cherubs can be used either for angels or for enchanting small children. (not t chesnut, as it is often mispronounced) 44
57. CHORD OR CORD? chief (singular) chiefs (plural) See PLURALS (v). childish or childlike? The teenager was rebuked by the magistrate for his CHILDISH behaviour, (i.e. which he should have outgrown) The grandfather has retained his sense of CHILDLIKE wonder at the beauty of the natural world, (i.e. marvellously direct, innocent and enthusiastic) chimney (singular) chimneys (plural) See PLURALS (iii). Wrong spelling. See CHOIR. (not choclat although often mispronounced as such) (not -se) (not -io-) I CHOOSE my words carefully. I am CHOOSING my words carefully. I CHOSE my words carefully yesterday. I have CHOSEN them carefully. chord or cord? CHORD is used in a mathematical or musical context. CORD refers to string and is generally used when referring to anatomical parts like the umbilical cord, spinal cord and vocal cords. Note-, you will occasionally see CHORD used instead of CORD in a medical context but it seems very old- fashioned now. 45
58. (not Cr-) (not Cristmas or Chrismas) (not cr-) This word is often misused. It doesn't mean terrible or serious. It means long-lasting, persistent, when applied to an illness. (not cry-) Wrong spelling. See CRYSTAL. Wrong spelling. See CEILING. (not -rr) cite, sight or site? To CITE means to refer to. SIGHT is vision or something seen. A SITE is land, usually set aside for a particular purpose. See AMBIGUITY. clothes or cloths? CLOTHES are garments. CLOTHS are dusters or scraps of material. coarse or course? COARSE means vulgar, rough: COARSE language, COARSE cloth. COURSE means certainly: 46
59. COLONEL OR KERNEL? OF COURSE COURSE also means a series of lectures, a direction, a sports area, and part of a meal: an advanced COURSE to change COURSE a golf COURSE the main COURSE (not -ie-) (not -ar) collaborated, collaborating collaboration collapsed, collapsing (not -able) collective nouns See NOUNS. (not colledge) Wrong spelling. See COLOSSAL. colonel or kernel? A COLONEL is a senior officer. A KERNEL is the inner part of a nut. 47
60. (i) Colons can introduce a list: Get your ingredients together: flour, sugar, dried fruit, butter and milk. Note that a summing-up word should always precede the colon (here 'ingredients'). (ii) Colons can precede an explanation or amplification of what has gone before: The teacher was elated: at last the pupils were gaining in confidence. Note that what precedes the colon must always be able to stand on its own grammatically. It must be a sentence in its own right. (iii) Colons can introduce dialogue in a play: Henry (with some embarrassment): It's all my fault. (iv) Colons can be used instead of a comma to introduce direct speech: Henry said, with some embarrassment: 'It's all my fault.' (v) Colons can introduce quotations: Donne closes the poem with the moving tribute: 'Thy firmness makes my circle just And makes me end where I began.' (vi) Colons can introduce examples as in this reference book. Compare SEMICOLONS. (not t -11-) 48
61. COMMAS (not color, as in American English) Wrong spelling. See COMMEMORATE. (four syllables, not three) come + ing = coming (not comming) See ADDING ENDINGS (ii). Wrong spelling. See COMMISSION. (i) Direct commands, if expressed emphatically, require an exclamation mark: Stop, thief! Put your hands up! Stop talking! If expressed calmly and conversationally, however, a full stop is sufficient: Just wait there a moment and I'll be with you. Tell me your story once again. (ii) Reported commands (indirect commands) never need an exclamation mark because, when they are reported, they become statements. He ordered the thief to stop. She told him to put his hands up. The teacher yelled at the class to stop talking. Commas are so widely misused that it is worth discussing their function in some detail. First, let us make it very clear when commas cannot be used. 49
62. (a) A comma should never divide a subject from its verb. The two go together: My parents, had very strict views. My parents had very strict views. Take extra care with compound subjects: The grandparents, the parents, and the children, were in some ways to blame. The grandparents, the parents, and the children were in some ways to blame. (b) Commas should never be used in an attempt to string sentences together. Sentences must be either properly joined (and commas don't have this function) or clearly separated by full stops, question marks or exclamation marks. Commas have certain very specific jobs to do within a sentence. Let us look at each in turn: (i) Commas separate items in a list: I bought apples, pears, and grapes. She washed up, made the beds, and had breakfast. The novel is funny, touching, and beautifully written. The final comma before 'and' in a list is optional. However, use it to avoid any ambiguity. See (ix) below. (ii) Commas are used to separate terms of address from the rest of the sentence: Sheila, how nice to see you! Can I help you, madam? I apologise, ladies and gentlemen, for this delay. Note that a pair of commas is needed in the last example above because the term of address 50
63. COMMAS occurs mid-sentence. It is a very common error to omit one of the commas. (iii) Commas are used to separate interjections, asides and sentence tags like isn't it? don't you? haven't you?. You'll notice in the examples below that all these additions could be removed and these sentences would still be grammatically sound: My mother, despite her good intentions, soon stopped going to the gym. Of course, I'll help you when I can. You've met Tom, haven't you? (iv) Commas are used to mark off phrases in apposition: Prince Charles, the future king, has an older sister. The phrase 'the future king' is another way of referring to 'Prince Charles' and is punctuated just like an aside. (v) A comma separates any material that precedes it from the main part of the sentence: Although she admired him, she would never go out with him. If you want to read the full story, buy The Sunday Times. Note that if the sentences are reversed so that the main part of the sentence comes first, the comma becomes optional. (vi) Commas mark off participles and participial phrases, whenever they come in the sentence: Laughing gaily, she ran out of the room. He flung himself on the sofa, overcome with remorse. The children, whispering excitedly, crowded 51
64. through the door. For a definition of participles see PARTICIPLES. (vii) Commas mark off some adjectival clauses. Don't worry too much about the grammatical terminology here. You'll be able to decide whether you need to mark them off in your own work by matching them against these examples. Can you see the difference in meaning that a pair of commas makes here? Read the two sentences aloud, pausing where the commas indicate that you should pause in the first sentence, and the two different meanings should become clear: The firemen, who wore protective clothing, were uninjured. (= nobody injured) The firemen who wore protective clothing were uninjured, (but those who didn't wear it...) (viii) Commas are used to mark a pause at a suitable point in a long sentence. This will be very much a question of style. Read your own work carefully and decide exactly how you want it to be read. (ix) Commas are sometimes needed to clarify meaning. In the examples below, be aware how the reader could initially make an inappropriate connection: She reversed the car into the main road and my brother waved goodbye. She reversed the car into the main road and my brother?? She reversed the car into the main road, and my brother waved goodbye. 52
65. COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE In the skies above the stars glittered palely. In the skies above the stars?? In the skies above, the stars glittered palely. Notice how the comma can sometimes be essential with 'and' in a list: We shopped at Moores, Browns, SuperValu, Marks and Spencer and Leonards. Is the fourth shop called Marks, or Marks and Spencer? Is the fifth shop called Leonards, or Spencer and Leonards? A comma makes all clear: We shopped at Moores, Browns, Super Valu, Marks and Spencer, and Leonards. (not -m-) Wrong spelling. See COMING. (not -m-) committed, committing, commitment See ADDING ENDINGS (iv). common nouns See NOUNS. comparatively (not compari-) comparative and superlative (i) Use the comparative form of adjectives and adverbs when comparing two: 53
66. COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE John is TALLER than Tom. John works MORE ENERGETICALLY than Tom. Use the superlative form when comparing three or more: John is the TALLEST of all the engineers. John works THE MOST ENERGETICALLY of all the engineers. (ii) There are two ways of forming the comparative and superlative of adjectives: (a) Add -er and -est to short adjectives: tall taller tallest happy happier happiest (b) Use more and most with longer adjectives: dangerous more dangerous most dangerous successful more successful most successful The comparative and superlative forms of adverbs are formed in exactly the same way: (c) Short adverbs add -er and -est. You run FASTER than I do. He runs the FASTEST of us all. (d) Use more and most with longer adverbs. Nikki works MORE CONSCIENTIOUSLY than Sarah. Niamh works THE MOST CONSCIENTIOUSLY of them all. (iii) There are three irregular adjectives: good better best bad worse worst many more most There are four irregular adverbs: 54
67. COMPLEMENT OR COMPLIMENT? well better best badly worse worst much more most little less least (iv) A very common error is to mix the two methods of forming the comparative and the superlative: more simpler simpler most easiest easiest (v) Another pitfall is to try to form the comparative and superlative of absolute words like perfect, unique, excellent, complete, ideal. Something is either perfect or it isn't. It can't be more perfect or less perfect, most perfect or least perfect. compare to/compare with Both constructions are acceptable but many people still prefer to use 'compare with'. Wrong spelling. See COMPARATIVE. competitive, competitively complacent or complaisant? COMPLACENT = smug, self-satisfied COMPLAISANT = obliging, willing to comply Wrong spelling. See COMPLETELY. complement or compliment? COMPLEMENT = that which completes Half the ship's COMPLEMENT were recruited in Norway. To COMPLEMENT - to go well with something Her outfit was COMPLEMENTED by well-chosen accessories. COMPLIMENT = praise, flattering remarks 55
68. COMPLEMENTARY OR COMPLIMENTARY? To COMPLIMENT = to praise complementary or complimentary? Use COMPLEMENTARY in the sense of completing a whole: COMPLEMENTARY medicine COMPLEMENTARY jobs Use COMPLIMENTARY in two senses: (a) flattering (b) free of charge COMPLIMENTARY remarks COMPLIMENTARY tickets complete + ly (not completly, completley or compleatly) See ADDING ENDINGS (ii). complex or complicated? Both words mean 'made up of many different intricate and confusing aspects'. However, use COMPLEX when you mean 'intricate', and COMPLICATED when you mean 'difficult to understand'. See COMPLEMENT OR COMPLIMENT?. The report IS COMPOSED OF ten sections. (= is made up of) The report COMPRISES ten sections. (= contains) Never use the construction 'is comprised of. It is always incorrect grammatically. (not -ize) 56
69. CONSISTENT (not -ize) (not -or) conceived, conceiving, conceivable See EI/IE SPELLING RULE. conferred, conferring, conference See ADDING ENDINGS (iv). confidant, confidante or confident? A CONFIDANT (male or female) or a CONFIDANTE (female only) is someone to whom one tells one's secrets 'in confidence'. CONFIDENT means assured. connection or connexion? Both spellings are correct, but the first one is more commonly used. Used for both men and women. consist in or consist of? For Belloc, happiness CONSISTED IN 'laughter and the love of friends', (consist in = have as its essence) Lunch CONSISTED OF bread, cheese and fruit. (not -ant) 57
70. There are 21 consonants in the alphabet, all the letters except for the vowels: bcdfghjklmnpqrstvwxyz Note, however, that y can be both a vowel and a consonant: y is a consonant when it begins a word or a syllable (yolk, beyond); y is a vowel when it sounds like i or e (sly, baby). contagious or infectious? Both refer to diseases passed to others. Strictly speaking, CONTAGIOUS means passed by bodily contact, and INFECTIOUS means passed by means of air or water. Used figuratively, the terms are interchangeable: INFECTIOUS laughter, CONTAGIOUS enthusiasm. (not contempory, as often mispronounced) Nowadays, this word is used in two senses: (a) happening or living at the same time (in the past) (b) modern, current Be aware of possible ambiguity if both these meanings are possible in a given context: Hamlet is being performed in contemporary dress, (sixteenth-century or modern?) contemptible or contemptuous A person or an action worthy of contempt is CONTEMPTIBLE. A person who shows contempt is CONTEMPTUOUS. continually 58
71. CORPORAL PUNISHMENT continual or continuous? CONTINUAL means frequently repeated, occurring with short breaks only. CONTINUOUS means uninterrupted. Take care when placing the apostrophe in contractions. It is placed where the letter has been omitted and not where the two words are joined. These happen to coincide in some contractions: I'd (I would, I had) they aren't (they are not) it isn't (it is not) you hadn't (you had not) you wouldn't (you would not) she won't (she will not) we haven't (we have not) I shan't (I shall not) It was common in Jane Austen's time to use two apostrophes in shan't (sha'n't) to show that two sets of letters had been omitted but this is no longer correct today. controlled, controlling (not -or) (not -ance) conveniently (not convien-) See CHORD OR CORD?. corporal punishment See CAPITAL OR CORPORAL PUBLISHMENT?. 59
72. (not -r-) (not -ance) correspondent or co-respondent? A CORRESPONDENT is someone who writes letters. A CO-RESPONDENT is cited in divorce proceedings. could of This is incorrect and arises from an attempt to write down what is heard. Write 'could've' in informal contexts and 'could have' in formal ones. I COULD'VE given you a lift. I COULD HAVE given you a lift. Beware also: should of/would of/must of/might of. All are incorrect forms. See CONTRACTIONS. council or counsel? A COUNCIL is a board of elected representatives. COUNSEL is advice, also the term used for a barrister representing a client in court. councillor or counsellor? A COUNCILLOR is an elected representative. A COUNSELLOR is one who gives professional guidance, such as a study COUNSELLOR, a marriage COUNSELLOR, a debt COUNSELLOR. This is one of the few exceptions to the IE/El spelling rule. See IE/El SPELLING RULE. 60
73. CRYSTAL (not -gous) See SOFT c AND SOFT G. See COARSE OR COURSE?. courteously, courtesy credible or credulous? If something is CREDIBLE, it is believable. If someone is CREDULOUS, he or she is gullible (i.e. too easily taken in). crisis (singular) crises (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. criterion (singular) criteria (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. Both spellings are correct. This word is frequently misspelt. Remember critic + ism. Wrong spelling. See CHRONIC. cried, crying See ADDING ENDINGS (iii). Wrong spelling. See CHRYSANTHEMUM. (not chr-) 61
74. (not cub-) curb or kerb To CURB one's temper means to control or restrain it. A CURB is a restraint (e.g. a curb bit for a horse). A KERB is the edging of a pavement. (not -ious-) (not -ey) currant or current? A CURRANT is a small dried grape used in cooking. A CURRENT is a steady flow of water, air or electricity. CURRENT can also mean happening at the present time (as in CURRENT affairs, CURRENT practice). curriculum (singular) curriculums/curricula (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. curriculum vitae (abbreviation: CV) See CERTAIN OR CURTAIN?. 62
75. D (nott dayly) This is an exception to the -y rule. See ADDING ENDINGS (iii). dairy or diary? We buy our cream at a local DAIRY. Kate writes in her DIARY every day. dangling participles See PARTICIPLES. Dashes are used widely in informal notes and letters. (i) A dash can be used to attach an afterthought: I should love to come - that's if I can get the time off. (ii) A dash can replace a colon before a list in informal writing: The thieves took everything - video, television, cassettes, computer, camera, the lot. (iii) A dash can precede a summary: Video, television, cassettes, computer, camera - the thieves took the lot. (iv) A pair of dashes can be used like a pair of commas or a pair of brackets around a parenthesis: Geraldine is - as you know - very shy with strangers. (v) A dash can mark a pause before the climax is reached: There he was at the foot of the stairs - dead. 63
76. (vi) Dashes can indicate hesitation in speech: I - er - don't - um - know what - what to say. (vii) Dashes can indicate missing letters or even missing words where propriety or discretion require it: c 1 (ship of the desert) Susan L— comes from Exeter. He swore softly, ' it'. data (plural) datum (singular) Strictly speaking, DATA should be used with a plural verb: The DATA have been collected by research students. You will, however, increasingly see DATA used with a singular verb and this use has now become acceptable. The DATA has been collected by research students. See NUMBERS for a discussion of how to set out dates. deceased or diseased? DECEASED means dead. DISEASED means affected by illness or infection. (not -ie) See EI/IE SPELLING RULE. decent or descent? DECENT means fair, upright, reasonable. DESCENT means act of coming down, ancestry. decided, deciding (not decied-) 64
77. DE LAPIDATED Wrong spelling. See DECEIT. Wrong spelling. See DECEIVE. (not de-) (not -id) defective or deficient? DEFECTIVE means not working properly (a DEFECTIVE machine). DEFICIENT means lacking something vital (a diet DEFICIENT in vitamin C). deferred, deferring, deference See ADDING ENDINGS (iv). Wrong spelling. See DEFINITE. See DEFECTIVE OR DEFICIENT?. Wrong spelling. See DEFINITE. (not -ff-, not -ate) Wrong spelling. See DIESEL. Wrong spelling. See DILAPIDATED. 65
78. See ALLUSION, DELUSION OR ILLUSION?. Both spellings are correct. dependant or dependent? The adjective (meaning reliant) is always -ent. She is a widow with five DEPENDENT children. I am absolutely DEPENDENT on a pension. The noun (meaning someone who is dependent) has traditionally been spelt -ant. However, the American practice of writing either -ant or -ent for the noun has now spread here. Either spelling is now considered correct for the noun but be aware that some conservative readers would consider this slipshod. She has five DEPENDANTS/DEPENDENTS, See DECENT OR DESCENT?. (not tdis-) (not -scrib-) Wrong spelling. See DISEASE. desert or dessert? A DESERT is sandy. A DESSERT is a pudding. (not dess-) 66
79. DEVICE/DEVISE (nott desireable) See ADDING ENDINGS (ii). (not t desparate) The word is derived from spes (Latin word for hope). This may help you to remember the e in the middle syllable. See DESERT OR DESSERT?. Wrong spelling. See DESICCATED. destroyed, destroying (not dis-) See ADDING ENDINGS (iii). (not t detatched) deterred, deterring See ADDING ENDINGS (iv). (not deteriate, as it is often mispronounced) (not -ant) developed, developing (not -pp-) (not developement) DEVICE is the noun. A padlock is an intriguing DEVICE. 67
80. DEVISE is the verb. Try to DEVISE a simple burglar alarm. diagnosis (singular) diagnoses (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. diagnosis or prognosis? DIAGNOSIS is the identification of an illness or a difficulty. PROGNOSIS is the forecast of its likely development and effects. diary (singular) diaries (plural) See PLURALS (iii). See DAIRY OR DIARY?. dictionary (singular) dictionaries (plural) (not -nn-) See PLURALS (iii). (not did'nt) See CONTRACTIONS. (not deisel) See EI/IE SPELLING RULE. Both spellings are correct. Wrong spelling. See DIFFICULT. (not -ance) (not t -ant) different from/to/than 'Different from' and 'different to' are now both 68
81. DIRECT SPEECH considered acceptable forms. My tastes are DIFFERENT FROM yours. My tastes are DIFFERENT TO yours. Conservative users would, however, much prefer the preposition 'from' and this is widely used in formal contexts. 'Different than' is acceptable in American English but is not yet fully acceptable in British English. (not differcult, not difficalt) (not delapidated) This word is often used loosely to mean 'a problem'. Strictly speaking it means a difficult choice between two possibilities. dinghy or dingy? A DINGHY is a boat (plural - dinghies). See PLURALS (iii). DINGY means dull and drab. dingo (singular) dingoes or dingos (plural) dining or dinning? dine + ing = dining (as in dining room) din + ing = dinning (noise dinning in ears) See ADDING ENDINGS (i) and (ii). (not diptheria as it is often mispronounced) (not dipthong as it is often mispronounced) direct speech See INVERTED COMMAS. 69
82. dis + agree + able dis + appear (not -ence) dis + appoint dis + approve disassociate or dissociate? Both are correct, but the second is more widely used and approved. (not disasterous, as it is often mispronounced) disc or disk? Use 'disc' except when referring to computer disks. (not disiple) discover or invent? You DISCOVER something that has been there all the time unknown to you (e.g. a star). You INVENT something if you create it for the first time (e.g. a time machine). discreet or discrete? You are DISCREET if you can keep secrets and behave diplomatically. Subject areas are DISCRETE if they are quite separate and unrelated. 70
83. DISINTERESTED OR UNINTERESTED? discrepancy (singular) discrepancies (plural) Wrong spelling. See DESCRIBE. Wrong spelling. See DESCRIPTION. Wrong spelling. See DESCRIPTION. discussed, discussing See DECEASED OR DISEASED?. (not t disintergrate) disinterested or uninterested? Careful users would wish to preserve a distinction in meaning between these two words. Use the word DISINTERESTED to mean 'impartial, unselfish, acting for the good of others and not for yourself. My motives are entirely DISINTERESTED; it is justice I am seeking. Use UNINTERESTED to mean 'bored'. His teachers say he is reluctant to participate and is clearly UNINTERESTED in any activities the school has to offer. Originally, DISINTERESTED was used in this sense (= having no interest in, apathetic), and it is interesting that this meaning is being revived in popular speech. 71
84. Avoid this use in formal contexts, however, for it is widely perceived as being incorrect. Wrong spelling. See DISCIPLE. See DISC OR DISK?. displace or misplace? To displace is to move someone or something from its usual place: a DISPLACED hip; a DISPLACED person To misplace something is to put it in the wrong place (and possibly forget where it is): a MISPLACED apostrophe; MISPLACED kindness Wrong spelling. See DISAPPEAR. Wrong spelling. See DISAPPOINT. Wrong spelling. See DISAPPROVE. (dis + satisfied) See DISASSOCIATE OR DISSOCIATE?. Wrong spelling. See DESTROY. divers or diverse The first is rarely used nowadays except jokingly or in mistake for the second. DIVERS means 'several', 'of varying types': DIVERS reference books. DIVERSE means 'very different': DIVERSE opinions, 72
85. DOUBLE NEGATIVES DIVERSE interests. does or dose? DOES he take sugar? He DOES, (pronounced 'duz') Take a DOSE of cough mixture every three hours. (not does'nt) See CONTRACTIONS. domino (singular) dominoes (plural) See PLURALS (iv). (not do'nt) See CONTRACTIONS. See DOES OR DOSE?. double meaning See AMBIGUITY. double negatives The effect of two negatives is to cancel each other out. This is sometimes done deliberately and can be effective: I am not ungenerous. ( = 1 am very generous.) He is not unintelligent. (= He is quite intelligent.) Frequently, however, it is not intentional and the writer ends up saying the opposite of what is meant: I haven't had no tea. ( = 1 have had tea.) You don't know nothing. (= You know something.) Be particularly careful with 'barely', 'scarcely', 'hardly'. These have a negative force. I wasn't SCARCELY awake when you rang. ( = 1 was very awake.) Be careful too with constructions like this: 73
86. DOUBLING RULE I wouldn't be surprised if he didn't come. Say either: I wouldn't be surprised if he came, or: I would be surprised if he didn't come. Sometimes writers put so many negatives in a sentence that the meaning becomes too complicated to unravel: Mr Brown denied vehemently that it was unlikely that no one would come to the concert. Does Mr Brown think that the concert will be popular or not? Rewrite as either: Mr Brown was certain the concert would be well attended. Or: Mr Brown feared that no one would come to the concert. doubling rule See ADDING ENDINGS (i) and (iv). (not dout) The word is derived from the Latin word dubitare, to doubt. It may help you to remember that the silent b is there. Down's syndrome (not Downe's) (one word) draft or draught? A DRAFT is a first or subsequent attempt at a piece of written work before it is finished. A DRAUGHT is a current of cool air in a room. 74
87. DUE TO/OWING TO One also refers to a DRAUGHT of ale, a game of DRAUGHTS and a boat having a shallow DRAUGHT. drawers or draws? DRAWS is a verb. She DRAWS very well for a young child. DRAWERS is a noun. The DRAWERS of the sideboard are very stiff. Both spellings are correct. drier or dryer? DRIER is generally used for the comparative form (DRIER = more dry). DRYER is generally used for a drying machine (hair DRYER, clothes DRYER) However, both spellings are interchangeable. drunken + ness (exception to the -y rule) See ADDING ENDINGS (iii). dual or duel? DUAL means two (e.g. DUAL controls, DUAL carriageway). DUEL means fight or contest. (not dutchess) due to/owing to Strictly speaking, 'due to' should refer to a noun: His absence was DUE TO sickness, (noun) The delay was DUE TO leaves on the line, (noun) 'Owing to', strictly speaking, should refer to a verb: 75
88. The march was cancelled OWING TO the storm. (verb) OWING TO an earlier injury, he limped badly. (verb) However, in recent years, the use of 'due to' where traditionally 'owing to' would be required has become widespread. Nevertheless, some careful writers continue to preserve the distinction and you may wish to do so too in a formal context. See DUAL OR DUEL?. (not duely) This is an exception to the magic -e rule. See ADDING ENDINGS (ii). Wrong spelling. See DUCHESS. Both spellings are correct. dyeing or dying? DYEING comes from the verb to dye. She was DYEING all her vests green. DYING comes from the verb to die. She cursed him with her DYING breath. 76
89. E earnest or Ernest? EARNEST = serious and sincere ERNEST = masculine first name echo (singular) echoes (plural) See PLURALS (iv). economic or economical? ECONOMIC = related to the economy of the country, or industry or business ECONOMICAL = thrifty, avoiding extravagance ecstasy (singular) ecstasies (plural) See PLURALS (iv). illegal drug -ed or -t? These can be either: burned burnt dreamed dreamt dwelled dwelt kneeled knelt leaned leant leaped leapt learned learnt smelled smelt spelled spelt spilled spilt spoiled spoilt eerie or eyrie? EERIE = strange, weird, disturbing EYRIE = an eagle's nest 77
90. See AFFECT OR EFFECT?. effective, effectual or efficient? EFFECTIVE = able to produce a result: an EFFECTIVE cure an EFFECTIVE speech EFFECTUAL = likely to be completely successful: EFFECTUAL prayer EFFECTUAL legislation EFFICIENT = working well without wasting time, money or effort: an EFFICIENT secretary an EFFICIENT engine ei/ie spelling rule Remember the jingle: i before e except after c or when sounded like a as in 'neighbour' and 'weigh'. Here are some examples which follow the rule. There are plenty of others. ie ei after c achieve ceiling believe conceited chief conceive field perceive friend receive hygiene ei sounding like a priest eight relief reign retrieve reindeer shield skein shriek sleigh thief vein 78
91. E I T H E R . . . OR 18 exceptions caffeine forfeit seize codeine heifer sheikh counterfeit height sovereign either leisure surfeit Fahrenheit neither weir foreign protein weird Proper names (e.g. of people or countries) don't follow the rule: Deirdre, Keith, Neil, Sheila, Madeira, etc. (notice -hth) See EI/IE SPELLING RULE. (not t -ie-) An exception to the EI/IE SPELLING RULE. either.. .or (i) Take care with singular and plural verbs. Use these exemplar sentences as a guide: Either Jack or Tom was there, (singular verb to match Jack (singular) or Tom (singular)) Either Jack or his brothers were there, (plural verb to match 'brothers' (plural) which is closer to it than 'Jack' (singular)) Either his brothers or Jack was there, (singular verb this time because 'Jack' (singular) is closer to the verb than 'brothers') (ii) Be careful to place each part of the 'either... or' construction correctly. I have decided either that I have to build an extension or I have to move. I have decided that either I have to build an extension or I have to move. 79
92. In the example above, there are these two possibilities: I have to build an extension. I have to move. 'Either' precedes the first one and 'or' precedes the second. The second one could be shortened: I have decided that either I have to build an extension or (I have to) move. I have decided that either I have to build an extension or move. It is important that the two constructions following 'either' and 'or' should be parallel ones: either meat or fish either green or red either to love or to hate either with malice or with kindness. If the second construction is shortened to avoid repetition, this is fine. The missing words are obvious and can be supplied readily. elf (singular) elves (plural) See PLURALS (v). eligible or legible? ELIGIBLE = suitably qualified LEGIBLE = able to be read See ALLUDE OR ELUDE?. embargo (singular) embargoes (plural) See PLURALS (iv). 80
93. END STOPS embarrassed, embarrassing (not -r-) See AMEND OR EMEND?. emergency (singular) emergencies (plural) See PLURALS (iv). emigrant or immigrant? An EMIGRANT leaves his or her country to live in another. An IMMIGRANT moves into a country to live permanently. eminent or imminent? EMINENT = famous IMMINENT = about to happen Both spellings are correct. Both spellings are correct. end stops There are three end stops: a full stop (.), an exclamation mark (!), and a question mark (?). Use a full stop to end a statement. There are five eggs in the fridge. Use an exclamation mark with a command or an exclamation. Get out! Use a question mark to end a question. 81
94. Where do you live? See EXCLAMATION MARKS. FULL STOPS. QUESTION MARKS. See ADDING ENDINGS. enemy (singular) enemies (plural) See PLURALS (iv). This refers to a grave sin or a crime, or a disaster on a huge scale. We gradually realised the full ENORMITY of the tragedy. It is often used in popular speech to mean 'enormousness', 'hugeness', 'immensity'. This should be avoided in a formal context. enquiry or inquiry? Both spellings are correct and there is no difference in meaning. British English favours the first and American English the second. Some writers reserve the first for a general request for information and the second for a formal investigation, but this is by no means necessary. enrolled, enrolling (British English - enrol; American English - enroll) (British English - enrolment; American English - enrollment) ensure or insure? to ENSURE = to make sure to INSURE = to arrange for financial compensation in the case of loss, injury, damage or death 82
95. ESPECIALLY OR SPECIALLY? (not -ou-) enveloped, enveloping, envelopment (stress on second syllable) envelope (singular) envelopes (plural) (stress on third syllable) (not enviroment) epigram or epitaph? EPIGRAM = a short witty saying EPITAPH = an inscription on a tombstone equipped, equipping, equipment See ADDING ENDINGS (iv). See EARNEST OR ERNEST?. erratum (singular) errata (plural) See FOREIGN PLURALS. err + ing (not -r-) (not -rr-) especially or specially? The two words are very close in meaning and sometimes overlap. However, use these exemplar sentences as a guide to exclusive uses: I bought the car ESPECIALLY for you (= for you alone). We are awaiting a SPECIALLY commissioned report (- for a special purpose). 83
96. estuary (singular) estuaries (plural) See PLURALS (iv). (not t e.t.c. or ect.) (i) etc. is an abbreviation of the Latin et cetera which means 'and other things'. It is therefore incorrect to write 'and etc.'. (ii) Avoid using 'etc.' in formal writing. Either list all the items indicated by the vague and lazy 'etc.', or introduce the given selection with a phrase like 'including', 'such as' or 'for example'. eventual + ly (not eventully) (not exagerate) Wrong spelling. See EXHAUSTED. (not -ant) See ACCEPT OR EXCEPT?. exceptionable or exceptional? EXCEPTIONABLE = open to objection EXCEPTIONAL = unusual Wrong spelling. See EXERCISE. excited, exciting, excitement See ADDING ENDINGS (ii). 84
97. EXPENSE exclaimed, exclaiming (not -claim-) exclamation mark Use an exclamation mark: (i) with exclamations Ouch! Oh! Hey! (ii) with vehement commands Stop thief! Help! Jump! See COMMANDS. (not excercise) (not exausted) exhausting or exhaustive? EXHAUSTING = tiring EXHAUSTIVE = thorough, fully comprehensive (not -er-) (not expidition) The second syllable is derived from the Latin word pes, pedis (foot, of the foot). This may help you to remember -ped-. The words pedal, pedestrian, pedometer all come from this same Latin root. (not -ible) 85
98. (not expierience, not -ance) The second syllable is derived from the Latin word per, meaning through. (Experience is what we gain from going 'through' something.) explained, explaining (not -plain-) explicit or implicit? EXPLICIT = stated clearly and openly IMPLICIT = implied but not actually stated Wrong spelling. See EXPENSE. Wrong spelling. See EXPENSIVE. Wrong spelling. See EXTREMELY. extra + ordinary (not -ence) (not -ent) extreme + ly Wrong spelling. See EXTRAORDINARY. (not -ence) 86
99. EYRIE (not -ent) See EERIE OR EYRIE?. 87
100. F (All five vowels occur in this word once only and in alphabetical order.) facilities or faculties? FACILITIES = amenities FACULTIES = mental or physical aptitudes Wrong spelling. See FASCINATE. factory (singular) factories (plural) See PLURALS (iv). (not -ie-) See EI/IE SPELLING RULE. faithful + ly See SINCERELY for guidelines when punctuating a complimentary close to a letter (fully blocked and also traditional layout). (not fammiliar) family (singular) families (plural) (not -mm-) farther or further? Both words can be used to refer to physical distance although some writers prefer to keep 'farther' for this purpose. I can walk FARTHER than you. I can walk FURTHER than you. FURTHER is used in a figurative sense: 88
101. FEWER OR LESS? Nothing was FURTHER from my mind. FURTHER is also used in certain expressions: FURTHER education until FURTHER notice (not facinate) (not -ate) (notT -able) Notice the word has four syllables and not three as it is often mispronounced. fewer or less? FEWER is the comparative form of 'few'. It is used with plural nouns: FEWER vegetables FEWER responsibilities FEWER children LESS is the comparative form of 'little'. It is used in the sense of 'a small amount' rather than 'a fewer number of: LESS enthusiasm LESS sugar LESS petrol LESS THAN is used with number alone, and expressions of time and distance: LESS THAN a thousand LESS THAN ten seconds LESS THAN four miles 89
102. FIANCE OR FIANCEE? It is considered incorrect to use 'less' instead of 'fewer' although such confusion is frequent in popular speech. As a rule of thumb, remember: FEWER = not so many LESS = not so much fiance or fiancee? FIANCE = masculine FIANCEE - feminine Note the accent in both words. fictional or fictitious? FICTIONAL = invented for the purpose of fiction, related to fiction FICTIONAL texts FICTIONAL writing FICTITIOUS = false, not true a FICTITIOUS report a FICTITIOUS name and address Either word can be used to describe a character in a work of fiction: a FICTIONAL or FICTITIOUS character. (not firey) fifteenth fiftieth final + ly (not -aly) 90
103. FOR- OR FORE-? finished, finishing (not -nn-) Wrong spelling. See FIERY. flamingo (singular) flamingoes or flamingos (plural) flammable or inflammable Both words mean 'easily bursting into flame'. People often think that inflammable is the negative form but the prefix 'in' here means 'into'. The opposite of these two words is non-flammable or non-inflammable. flaunt or flout? FLAUNT = to show off. FLAUNT one's wealth. FLOUT = to disregard. FLOUT all the rules. they fled, have fled, are fleeing (not -able) flu or flue? FLU = influenza (not 'flu although an abbreviation) FLUE = a pipe or duct for smoke and gases (not flourescent) they flew, have flown, are flying focused or focussed (both correct) focusing or focussing (both correct) for- or fore-? A useful rule of thumb is to remember the usual meaning of the prefixes: 91
104. FORBEAR OR FOREBEAR? FOR- = not, or something negative (forbid, forfeit, forget, forsake) FORE- = before (foreboding, forecast, forefathers) See individual entries for FORBEAR OR FOREBEAR? FOREWORD OR FORWARD?. forbear or forebear? FORBEAR (stress on second syllable) = restrain oneself FORBEAR or FOREBEAR (stress on first syllable) = ancestor forbad or forbade (both correct), forbidden, forbidding (not -able) (not forcast) Either spelling can be used. Either spelling can be used. Either spelling can be used. An exception to the rule. See EI/IE SPELLING RULE. foreign plurals Some foreign words in English have retained their foreign plurals. Some have both foreign and English plurals. Take care, however, with the words that are asterisked because the foreign plural of these is used 92
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