This book will help in evaluating the Grammar for Academic Writing course and there are several tasks that will practice a number of the grammatical and lexical features that are covered in the course unit.
2. GRAMMAR FOR ACADEMIC WRITING Unit 1 PACKAGING INFORMATION 1 Punctuation 1 Grammatical construction of the sentence 2 Types of clause 3 Grammar: rules and resources 4 Ways of packaging information in sentences 5 Linking markers 6 Relative clauses 8 Paragraphing 9 Extended Writing Task (Task 1.13 or 1.14) 11 Study Notes on Unit 12 Unit 2 INFORMATION SEQUENCE: Describing 16 Ordering the information 16 Describing a system 20 Describing procedures 21 A general procedure 22 Describing causal relationships 22 Extended Writing Task (Task 2.7 or 2.8 or 2.9 or 2.11) 24 Study Notes on Unit 25 Unit 3 INDIRECTNESS: Making requests 27 Written requests 28 Would 30 The language of requests 33 Expressing a problem 34 Extended Writing Task (Task 3.11 or 3.12) 35 Study Notes on Unit 36 Unit 4 THE FUTURE: Predicting and proposing 40 Verb forms 40 Will and Going to in speech and writing 43 Verbs of intention 44 Non-verb forms 45 Extended Writing Task (Task 4.10 or 4.11) 46 Study Notes on Unit 47 ii
3. GRAMMAR FOR ACADEMIC WRITING Unit 5 THE PAST: Reporting 49 Past versus Present 50 Past versus Present Perfect 51 Past versus Past Perfect 54 Reported speech 56 Extended Writing Task (Task 5.11 or 5.12) 59 Study Notes on Unit 60 Unit 6 BEING CONCISE: Using nouns and adverbs 64 Packaging ideas: clauses and noun phrases 65 Compressing noun phrases 68 ‘Summarising’ nouns 71 Extended Writing Task (Task 6.13) 73 Study Notes on Unit 74 Unit 7 SPECULATING: Conditionals and modals 77 Drawing conclusions 77 Modal verbs 78 Would 79 Alternative conditionals 80 Speculating about the past 81 Would have 83 Making recommendations 84 Extended Writing Task (Task 7.13) 86 Study Notes on Unit 87 iii
4. GRAMMAR FOR ACADEMIC WRITING Grammar for Academic Writing provides a selective overview of the key areas of English grammar that you need to master, in order to express yourself correctly and appropriately in academic writing. Those areas include the basic distinctions of meaning in the verb tense system, the use of modal verbs to express degrees of certainty and commitment, and alternative ways of grouping and ordering written information to highlight the flow of your argument. These materials are suitable for taught and research postgraduate students. Study Notes This course contains Study Notes at the end of each unit, providing answers and comments on the two types of exercise in the course: closed tasks - to which there is a single correct answer or solution; open tasks - where you write a text about yourself or your academic field. For these tasks we have provided sample answers (some written by past students) inside boxes. We hope you will find what they have written both interesting and useful in evaluating your own solutions. Note: every unit contains some suggested Extension Tasks – these are open tasks. Please do not send these tasks to us. If possible, show your answers to the open tasks to another student and ask them for their comments and corrections. Recommended Books If you are interested in continuing to work on your grammar/vocabulary, I can recommend the following: 1. Grammar Troublespots: A guide for Student Writers by A. Raimes (Cambridge University Press, 2004). This is designed to help students identify and correct the grammatical errors they are likely to make when they write. 2. Oxford Learner’s Wordfinder Dictionary by H. Trappes-Lomax (Oxford University Press, 1997). This is an innovative dictionary, designed to help you in the process of writing – unlike a conventional dictionary, which helps you understand new words when you are reading. iv
5. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information 1 PACKAGING INFORMATION In this first unit we look at ways of organising your writing into ‘packages’ of information that will make your meaning clear to the reader. To do that, we need to consider three levels of packaging of English: • punctuation within and between parts of the sentence • the grammar of sentence construction • paragraphing Task 1.1 Write in the names for these punctuation marks in the boxes below: : ; “ ” ( ) [ ] * & @ # / \ ‘ ’ Task 1.2 All the punctuation has been removed from the text below. Read the whole text and put in slashes where there you think the sentences end. Then punctuate each sentence. the university of edinburgh unlike other scottish universities is composed of colleges there are three of them sciences and engineering humanities and social sciences and medicine and veterinary medicine each college covers both undergraduate and graduate programmes of study although students are generally admitted to one college only they may have the opportunity to study subjects of another undergraduate programmess generally last three years or four for honours there is an extensive variety of postgraduate programmes of study including a 9 month diploma a 12 month masters and doctoral research programmes lasting at least 36 months 1
6. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information Grammatical construction of the sentence Any discussion of grammar requires some knowledge of the principal grammatical terms, so here’s a quick test to check whether you need to brush up your knowledge of terminology. Task 1.3 Write down one example (not a definition) of each of these terms: term example a clause a phrase an auxiliary verb a transitive verb an uncountable noun indirect speech a phrasal verb an adverb 2
7. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information Types of clause Task 1.4 Match the four clause types on the left with the appropriate definition on the right: 1 main clause a clause joined to another by ‘and’, ‘but’, or ‘or’ 2 relative clause b clause that can stand independently 3 co-ordinate clause c clause beginning with ‘who’, ‘which’, etc. 4 subordinate clause d clause that is dependent on another clause This terminology is helpful because it allows us to discuss the structure of a text (or sequence of sentences), which is a fundamental part of this course. It provides a way of analysing the formal components of a text - phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs - even if the content is hard to understand, as illustrated in the next Task 1.5 The text below is part of an abstract for a talk. You may find it difficult to understand, unless you are a student of cognitive science or artificial intelligence. That doesn’t matter! What we want you to do is to analyse it grammatically into the categories shown under the box. Tick the categories to show which of them are present in the six sentences. i Some Reasons for Avoiding Supervised Nets, and Ways of Doing So A B Neural networks can be divided into supervised and unsupervised. Supervised networks, such as the multilayer perceptron trained with backpropagation on a sum-of-squares error function, are useful for representing how some properties of the environment co-vary with C others (function approximation), but are biologically dubious. Unsupervised networks, such as the Self-organizing Map, are often more biologically plausible, but are used almost exclusively to represent the resting state of the environment (density estimation). In this talk I will argue that, for a common class of problem, it is wrong to use unsupervised E nets. I will go on to describe some unsupervised models that do the same job better, and F then try to motivate them from a computational and biological perspective. There will be some maths but more pictures. main clause coordinate subordinate relative clause clause clause Sentence A: Sentence B: Sentence C: Sentence D: Sentence E: Sentence F: 3
8. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information Grammar: rules and resources Grammar is often defined as the rule system of a language, but it is also useful to think of it as a resource for expressing meaning. For example, when we talk of someone ‘knowing’ the Present Perfect in English, we mean that they know how to form it ( by combining the auxiliary verb have with the past participle of the relevant verb), but more importantly in which situations it is used and which meanings it can convey. Thinking of grammar as primarily ‘rules’ tends to make people think there is a one-to-one relationship between grammar and meaning. As we will see in the next task, the same meaning can be expressed in different ways, and even with different Task 1.6 Think carefully about the meaning of this sentence: It's eleven years since the SDA Conference was last held here in Edinburgh. Complete the eight sentences below in ways that express the same meaning as the one above. A The last time... B The SDA Conference…….. last... C It… in 2000...... D Eleven years have... E This is the first... F 2000... G The SDA Conference hasn't... H Not for eleven years... That task highlights grammar as a resource. One important technique for extending your knowledge of English grammar is to analyse the texts you read for your degree course and to notice the variety of ways of expressing the same basic meaning. 4
9. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information Ways of packaging information in sentences English offers three ways of showing the relationship between ideas: Sequence Research grants from the British government are getting scarcer. As a result, universities are having to seek funding from private industry. Co-ordination Research grants from the British government are getting scarcer and universities are having to seek funding from private industry. Subordination As research grants from the British government are getting scarcer, universities are having to seek funding from private industry. or Universities are having to seek funding from private industry because research grants are getting scarcer. On the next page is a table showing some of the commonest linking markers: sentence openers and conjunctions (used in co-ordination and subordination). Task 1.7 Put an appropriate marker in the space in each sentence: A You can attend a graduation ceremony and receive your degree certificate from the Chancellor of the University. _________________ you can graduate in absentia and get the certificate sent by post. B In some areas of England, domestic water consumption is now subject to metering. __________________ some people on low incomes are washing less often. C Approximately 120 matriculated students take ELTT courses at ELTC each year. _____________________ they take a diagnostic test of English known as TEAM. D Sigrid scored less than 50% on TEAM. __________________ she did not apply for English courses at ELTC because she should have taken ELBA, the test for non-graduating students. 5
10. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information LINKING MARKERS 1 SENTENCE OPENERS 2 CONJUNCTIONS 2A 2B Co-ordinating Subordinating In addition [to NP], ... ...and ... , who... ADDITION Moreover, ... , which... Also, ... not only ..., , where... Apart from [NP], ... but also ... , when... Furthermore, ... However, ... ... but ... although... CONTRAST Nevertheless, ... whereas... On the other hand, ... ...(and) yet... while... In contrast, ... in spite of the fact that... In spite of [NP], ... despite the fact that... Despite [NP], ... So... ...(and) so... so... As a result... so that... CAUSE/ Consequently... ...(and) hence... because... EFFECT Therefore... due to the fact that... Thus... Hence... For this reason... Because of [NP],... POSITIVE In that case,... ...and... if... CONDITION If so,... as/so long as... Then,... ...and (then)... Alternatively, ... ...or (else)... If... not... CHOICE/ Otherwise,... unless... NEGATIVE Instead of [NP],... CONDITION Rather than [NP],... If not,... TIME ORDER/ Then... ...(and (then)... before... LISTING Afterwards,... after... First(ly),... , after which... Second(ly),... when... Next,... now that... Prior to [NP],... Before [NP],... Finally / Lastly,... Note: [NP] = Noun Phrase, which may include a noun, or a verbal noun (-ing form): e.g. Instead of complaints, it would be better to offer advice Instead of complaining, 6
11. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information Task 1.8 Now do the same for this text about how parents correct or ignore their children’s language errors. ii Learning conditions The way in which parents correct their children’s errors in their first language tends to be limited to corrections of meaning. ________________, in informal learning of a second language (i.e. not in the classroom) errors that do not interfere with meaning are usually ignored, because most people would feel they were being impolite if they interrupted and corrected someone who was trying to have a conversation with them! ________________, they may ‘correct’ if they cannot understand what the speaker is trying to say. ________________, errors of grammar and pronunciation are rarely commented on, but the wrong choice of word may receive a comment from the confused listener. The only place where the correction of language errors is common is the language classroom. Task 1.9 Rewrite the information below as TWO or THREE sentences. That involves deciding how the ideas are logically related, and then using a marker or conjunction (co-ordinating or subordinating) to match your meaning. Learning English is not easy. Learning German is in some ways more difficult. German has different articles for masculine, feminine and neuter nouns. You have to change the endings of adjectives to match the nouns. This is harder for speakers of English than for speakers of French. French also uses adjectival endings. People say that knowing English helps you to start learning German. When you have passed the elementary stages, English is less help. At an advanced level, knowledge of English is no help at all. 7
12. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information Relative clauses LANGUAGE BOX: Relative connectors in subject position The student who (or that) saw me yesterday was absent this morning. The book which (or that) proved most helpful was the one by McKenzie as object The supervisors who (or that, or less commonly whom) students appreciate most are those that give the clearest advice. The equipment which (or that) I avoid using is the gas spectrometer. [N.B. In object position, you can omit the connector: The equipment I avoid using…] as a possessive + noun South Korea is a crowded country, whose capital looks increasingly like Hong Kong. I was talking to two Italian researchers, whose English was hard to understand. with a preposition The address to which you have to send the form is shown on the back (or: The address which you have to send the form to is…) with a quantifier / noun / adjective There were three lecturers in the office, none of whom knew much about it. The library had a variety of books, the most popular of which are on short loan. We had a long meeting, by the end of which she had accepted our proposal. with a place / time expression The Student Union is the place where you’ll find most adverts for flats. Childhood is said to be the period in our lives when we learn fastest. in combination In Scottish universities, the Rector is an elected officer, one of whose responsibilities is to represent the interests of the students in Senate meetings. Task 1.10 Write definitions of the words below, using the relative connectors on the right. university campus who, in which, at which, when, department lecturer into which, who, that, where, graduation seminar student loan postgraduate 8
13. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information Task 1.11 For practice, write a description of the institution where you work or study in your home country. Use as many as possible of the relative connectors shown on page 8. Write 100-150 words. NB - You should not send this to your tutor, but you can compare your text with that on page 14 of this The definition of paragraph in Wordfinder is ‘a section of writing which covers a particular idea’. So when writing a text we should make sure that we start a new paragraph when we move to a new point, or to a new development of an existing point. A good test for whether or not to begin a new paragraph is whether we could invent a heading for it. Task 1.12 Tony Lynch received this e-mail from a Chinese professor. As you will see, the text is clear enough but the writer did not divide it into paragraphs. Read it and decide (1) where you would make a new paragraph and (2) what heading you would give each one. [email protected] April 14, 2008 Dear Tony Lynch I have recently read your interesting article in the ELT Journal and could not help writing to you to thank you for your wonderful ideas. I have been a professor of English for 40 years and working/supervising more than 30 foreign teachers over the past 15 years. Most of them are native, but unqualified teachers. Every day we are trying to help our students and, inevitably, we have to react to their mistakes. It seems to me that all of us have not been consciously aware of when and how to react to our students’ mistakes. A typical picture in my class is to “step in as soon as learners encounter communication problems”, as you said in your article. My reaction has often been to interrupt their speech. My foreign colleagues’ more diplomatic reaction does no good either in facilitating our students’ learning. You are right to ask us teachers “to think about when and how (much) we should help”. To my foreign colleagues, I’d like to ask: Why? Non-professional language teachers need to know that correction is needed and they should not let all the significant mistakes go unchecked. I have been trying your suggestion in my class and I can see positive results. It is a little painful for me to resist my temptation to step in as soon as the problems come out, but it is also very rewarding to see my students’ more relaxed and confident learning manner in their learning process. That is just a beginning and I’ll try to tailor some methods to my teaching practice and help my students better in their English learning. I am writing to see if there is an opening at your 9
14. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information university for me to do a one-year research, because I’ll take a sabbatical starting from 2009. I wanted to go the USA but now I have changed my mind telling myself “Why not to go to a British university like Edinburgh?” The great English language originated in the UK! But I don’t know much about your country, especially your higher education institutions. Maybe there is not as much opportunity in the UK as in the USA, but I’d like to try. It would be very kind of you if your could convey my letter to the director of your centre or some other schools. I look forward to hearing from you. (Name) 10
15. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information Extension Tasks [Please do not send these tasks to us. If possible, show your answers to the tasks to another student and ask them for their comments and corrections.] You could practice the grammar studied in this unit by trying the following task(s): Task 1.13 Write a text of about 100 words about a controversy or problem in your academic field. Write notes first and then decide how to connect the ideas. Write your text as a single paragraph containing no more than four sentences. Task 1.14 Think of a new development in your field – something that has changed the way people work or think about an issue. Write a text describing the development and explaining why it is important. 11
16. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information Study Notes for Unit 1 Task 1.1 colon semi-colon (double) inverted commas / quotation marks (round) brackets (square) brackets asterisk ampersand at-sign hash slash back-slash (single) inverted commas / quotation marks Task 1.2 The original text was this: The University of Edinburgh, unlike other Scottish universities, is composed of Colleges. There are three of them: Science and Engineering, Humanities and Social Science, and Medicine and Veterinary Medicine. Each College covers both undergraduate and graduate programmes of study. Although students are generally admitted to one college only, they may have the opportunity to study subjects of another. Undergraduate programmes generally last three years (or four for Honours). There is an extensive variety of postgraduate programmes of study, including a 9-month Diploma, a 12-month Masters and doctoral research programmes lasting at least 36 months. Notice that the words University and Faculty have capital letters when they refer to specific examples, as is the case with Edinburgh University in line 1 and the Arts Faculty in lines 6-7. Task 1.3 term example a clause (a clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb) She is older than her brother. a phrase (a group of related words that does not contain a subject-verb relationship) in the morning an auxiliary verb Helping verbs or auxiliary verbs such as will, shall, may, might, can, could, must, ought to, should, would, used to, need are used in conjunction with main verbs to express shades of time and mood. a transitive verb Some verbs require an object to complete their meaning: "She gave _____ ?" Gave what? She gave money to the church. These verbs are called transitive. an uncountable noun Uncountable nouns are used for nouns describing a mass (clothing), a natural substance (air), food (bacon), an abstract concept (advice), a game (chess), a disease (diabetes), or a subject of study (biology). Uncountable nouns have no plural form. 12
17. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information indirect speech Unlike direct speech, indirect speech does not use the exact words of a speaker: Direct speech: The lecturer asked, “How am I doing?”. Indirect speech: The lecturer asked how he was doing. a phrasal verb Phrasal verbs (often called multi-word verbs) consist of a verb and another word or phrase, usually a preposition or adverb. The resulting combination creates what amounts to a new verb, whose meaning can sometimes be puzzling to non-native speakers. The plane took off. an adverb Adverbs are words that modify a verb (He drove slowly. — How did he drive?) an adjective (He drove a very fast car. — How fast was his car?) another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. — How slowly did she move?) Task 1.4 Solution: 1= b; 2 = c; 3 = a; 4 = d Task 1.5 main coordinate subordinate relative clause clauses clause clause Sentence A: YES - - - Sentence B: YES YES (but) YES (how) - Sentence C: YES YES (but) - - Sentence D: YES - YES (that…) - Sentence E: YES YES (and) - YES (that…) Sentence F: YES - - - In Sentences B and C, the word ‘but’ links co-ordinate clauses; in Sentence F, it links two noun phrases (some maths and more pictures) within a clause. Task 1.6 These answers assume we are counting backwards from 2011. The main thing to notice is the variation in the verb tense according to the sentence opening. A The last time the SDA Conference was held here in Edinburgh was eleven years ago/in 2000 B The SDA Conference was last held here in Edinburgh eleven years ago/in 2000 C It was in 2000 that the SDA Conference was last held here in Edinburgh D Eleven years have passed since the SDA Conference was last held here in Edinburgh E This is the first time for eleven years that the SDA Conference has been held here in Ed… This is the first time since 2000 that the SDA Conference has been held here in Edinburgh F 2000 was the last time (that) the SDA Conference was held here in Edinburgh G The SDA Conference hasn’t been held here in Edinburgh for eleven years (or since 2000) H Not for eleven years has the SDA Conference been held here in Edinburgh 13
18. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information In the last sentence, the negative phrase Not for eleven years… at the start of the sentence causes an inversion of the verb and subject. This happens with a number of similar negative and restrictive expressions, e.g. Never, Hardly, Nowhere, Seldom, At no time, and Under no circumstances. Task 1.7 A Alternatively B Consequently C Prior to that / Beforehand D However / Nevertheless Task 1.8 The original markers were A Similarly B However C Thus Task 1.9 Possible solution, in three sentences: Learning English is not easy, but in some ways learning German is more difficult, because German has different articles for masculine, feminine and neuter nouns. Moreover, you have to change the endings of adjectives, which is harder for speakers of English than for, say, speakers of French, which also uses adjectival endings. People say that knowing English helps you to start to learn German, but when you have passed the basic stages, it is less help, and knowledge of English is no help at all at advanced level. Task 1.10 The point in this exercise is for you to notice the combination of term to be defined and the relative university – a college or collection of colleges at which people study for a degree campus – the area of land where the main building of a university is department – one of the parts into which a university is divided lecturer –a person who teaches at a university or college graduation – a ceremony in which degree certificates are given to people who have graduated from a seminar – a class at a university or college when a small group of students and a teacher discuss or study a particular topic student loan – money that a bank or an institution lends to a student so that they can pay to do their postgraduate – a student who is studying for a second degree at a university Task 1.11 I work part-time in a student counselling centre in Athens, where I have been a volunteer for the past three years. The centre has team of six staff, each of whom has their own consultation room. But most of my time I spend studying for my PhD in the Department of Psychology, which is on the main university campus. The Department is in two sections: the main building is in very poor condition but the annexe is much more modern. I share a workroom in the annexe with four other students, which is not very convenient. 14
19. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 1 - Packaging information Task 1.12 Tony Lynch’s solution: Paragraph 2 starting at ‘A typical picture in my class…’ Paragraph 3 ‘I have been trying your suggestion…’ Paragraph 4 ‘I am writing to see if…’ Paragraph 5 ‘I look forward to hearing from you’ Possible headings for those paragraphs: 1. Introduction/Opening 2. The local teaching situation 3. Trying out your suggestions 4. Enquiry about a job 5. Closing Task 1.13 Sample answer: There are a number of problems and conflicts between conservationists and stakeholders in the management of the Cairngorms area. The conservationists want the area to be maintained with the minimum of human disturbance; the stakeholders need to use the area for a variety of purposes. Currently, the greatest conflict is the plan to develop downhill ski facilities, which can cause problems such as damage to vegetation, an increase in waste and litter, soil erosion, and disturbance to birds, deer and other wildlife. In order to solve the problems, the Cairngorms Partnership has been set up to guide the sustainable development of the area; its members include representatives of the local councils and communities, land owners and conservationists. Task 1.14 Sample answer: As health has become more and more important to people, medicine has gained greater status. Doctors have done a great deal of clinical and research work and, as a result, many diseases have been controlled or even eliminated - especially in the last 20 years. For example, few patients suffer from tuberculosis these days, since the introduction of BCG vaccine. Thus life expectancy has increased considerably all over the world, particularly in the developing countries. Apart from the advances in the treatment of infectious diseases, doctors have also found ways of investigating and treating cancers. In some cases we have had particular success - for example, mammograms for screening breast cancer and radiotherapy. However, it seems there are always new problems for medical science to deal with; some cancers remain difficult to manage, and one disease that is of major concern nowadays is AIDS. AIDS is likely to be the most serious problem for medicine to tackle over the next twenty years. Although we can hope that the risk of cancer will be reduced, we cannot be so sure that we will be able to find a treatment or cure for AIDS. Notice that in her first paragraph the student used the Present Perfect, to refer to changes in the recent past, and then switched in the second to other tenses, to describe the current and future E-mail notice from Will Lowe, Centre for Cognitive Science for an Interdisciplinary Tea Seminar. 15 March 1998. Extract adapted from Patsy Lightbown and Nina Spada, How Languages are Learned (OUP 1993, page 22) 15
20. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 2 - Information sequence: Describing 2 INFORMATION SEQUENCE: Describing Ordering the information When someone writes well, their text seems to ‘flow’ like a liquid - in fact the word fluent means precisely that. The readers have to make very little effort to understand your meaning and the information seems to come in a natural order. The characteristics of writing which create this impression vary from language to language. In English, one of the key factors in fluent writing is the order of information within the sentence, and in particular at the beginning of the sentence. Our past students at Edinburgh have told us that their supervisors sometimes return a piece of writing with comments such as “I can’t follow this” or “Make this clearer”. The difficulty seems to arise from the sequence of information; if you order your information differently from the ‘natural’ sequence that a native speaker of English expects, they have to work harder to make sense of it, and in some cases they may find it impossible to understand. Task 2.1 Compare these two versions of the same text: Version 1 Norma has had a terrible five years. Someone stole her car and set it on fire in 2006. Two of her toes had to be amputated the year after that. A road accident killed her husband in 2008. The other driver’s carelessness was the cause of the crash. A storm damaged her house earlier this year. Version 2 Norma has had a terrible five years. In 2006 her car was stolen and set on fire. The year after that she had to have two of her toes amputated. In 2008 her husband was killed in a road accident. The cause of the crash was the other driver’s carelessness. Earlier this year her house was damaged by a storm. Which version do you think flows more naturally? How is it different from the other one? 16
21. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 2 - Information sequence: Describing To native readers of English, Version 2 appears to be more fluent. That is because the ideas in each sentence follow the tendency in written English for old (or known) information to be presented before new (unknown) information. The diagram below shows this general movement from old to new in the text about Norma. old information new information Norma has had a terrible five years. In 2006 her car was stolen and set on fire. The year after that she had to have two of her toes amputated. In 2008 her husband was killed in a road accident. The cause of the crash was the other driver’s carelessness. Earlier this year her house was damaged by a storm. As you can see from the highlighting, once a piece of information has been presented as new in the second part of a sentence, it can be used as old information, at the beginning of a later sentence. This left-to-right, old-to-new movement in English is a strong tendency but not an absolute rule. You will find many texts where a writer goes against the tendency. However, in your own writing, if you follow the advice in this unit about information sequence you should find that it will make your texts clearer to British readers. Task 2.2 Have a look at this paragraph about Finland. Does it flow from old to new? There are 188,000 lakes in Finland. Many people are now very concerned about them. Chemicals have polluted most of the larger lakes. A Finnish government report recently confirmed this. 17
22. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 2 - Information sequence: Describing Task 2.3 Change the order of information in sentences 2, 3 and 4 to make the text flow more smoothly. Original Improved There are 188,000 lakes in Finland. There are 188,000 lakes in Finland. Many people are now very concerned about them. They… Chemicals have polluted most of the larger lakes. Most… A Finnish government report recently confirmed this. This Notice that in Sentences 3 and 4, the way to bring old information to the front of a sentence is to make it the subject of a Passive verb: Most of the larger lakes have been polluted by chemicals This was recently confirmed by a Finnish government report. The need to bring an old topic to the front of a sentence in written English is one of the reasons why the Passive is common in academic texts. We will return to this point (or: This point will be returned to!) later in this unit. Task 2.4 This time, there are two parts to the task: (1) Decide on the best sequence for the five sentences about manufacturing (2) Re-write the sentences as one paragraph, changing the information order within each sentence if you need to. A So the prices of many goods are now lower because of computerisation. B The more economical use of raw materials is one of these changes. C Computers are an essential part of manufacturing industry. D In addition, faster manufacturing processes have resulted from their introduction. E Improvements in production have been made possible by computers. 18
23. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 2 - Information sequence: Describing Task 2.5 Read the text below carefully. You need to change the information order in ONE of the sentences. Which one? How? i Student Loans An increasing proportion of the government money available to undergraduate students for maintenance is provided through student loans. These are administered by the Student Loans Company. Student loans are not means-tested and interest is charged in line with the Retail Prices index. Loans for courses of less than five years must be repaid over 5 years. Loans for courses lasting 5 years or more will be repaid over 7 years. In the April following course completion, repayments automatically begin unless a graduate’s earnings are less than 85% of national average earnings . In this case, repayments are postponed. Task 2.6 Below is a paragraph about archaeological excavations/surveys. The sentences forming the paragraph are all grammatically correct, but as a whole the paragraph does not ‘flow’ very well. Make changes to the sentences, where appropriate, so that the information flows across the paragraph –to do this pay attention to the ‘old-to-new’ flow in each sentence. The first step in an archaeological excavation or survey is the selection of the site. Information such as who lived there, how old it is, and what timeframe it covered is what archaeologists first need to learn about the site at this stage. Through the use of such things as maps, photographs, regional studies, oral histories, and historic documents of surrounding sites, the archaeologists accomplish this initial analysis. Once this is done, the possible results of the excavation must then be assessed by the archaeologists. Whether or not the work done at a site will yield innovative or duplicated results is taken into consideration. Careful deliberation must also take place to determine whether or not the proper funds, technology, and human resources are available to perform the excavation properly, because the information that comes from a site can only be viewed once. 19
24. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 2 - Information sequence: Describing Now that we have looked at the principle of information sequence in English, we are going to apply it to various types of description: * describing a system * describing a procedure * describing a causal relationship Describing a system Here the word system refers to anything with a multi-part structure (an organism, an institution, etc.). Some useful expressions for describing systems are listed in the LANGUAGE BOX: Describing a system Whole-part comprises is made up of The university contains nine faculties is composed of consists of is divided into Part-whole Four countries form (part of) the United Kingdom make up constitute Task 2.7 Write a description of the department, centre, or institute where you are studying at Edinburgh University. Describe both its physical components and also its complement of staff and students. 20
25. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 2 - Information sequence: Describing Describing procedures In general, Passive forms are used when the identity of the person (etc.) doing an action is less important than the nature or consequence of the action itself: Cherie was arrested when she arrived in Guadaloupe There it is clear it must have been police or customs officers who arrested her. Similarly, one reason for the frequency of the Passive in academic English is that it creates the impression that the events or ideas are being described objectively; it reduces the personal involvement of the writer/researcher. (As we saw earlier in this Unit, a second reason for using the Passive is a technical one: it allows you to put an old topic at the beginning of the sentence, to help the flow of the text). A specific procedure in a research study Typically, the experimental part of a research study (the Method section of the IMRaD model) is described using the Past Simple Passive: ii Data collection and analysis Three sets of data were gathered on these students after they had been attending reading classes for three weeks: an oral reading interview, a sample of oral reading, and a retelling (summary) of the oral As discussed earlier, the reading interview provides information about the students’ model of reading - that is, their mental image of reading. In order to examine the interaction between their reading model and their reading behaviour, a detailed analysis of the oral reading samples was performed to identify mis-pronunciations. Profiles of the students’ use of various clues in the text (sound/letter, grammatical and meaning clues) were established. The retelling or summaries of the oral reading were transcribed and evaluated on a scale 1-6 from very poor to excellent, depending on the quantity and accuracy of the information that the student could provide about the characters, events and implied meanings of the reading text. All the data were evaluated and checked by at least two Task 2.8 Write a short text (about 150 words) describing the method used in a research study that you have been involved in yourself or have recently read about. 21
26. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 2 - Information sequence: Describing A general procedure In cases where a writer describes a conventional or normal way of doing things, rather than a specific element in one particular case, the tense normally used is the Present Simple Passive. It has been underlined in the example below. Applicants to the University of Edinburgh whose first language is not English are required to provide evidence of adequate proficiency in English, which in most cases takes the form of a certified score on a recognised measure of academic English, such as IELTS or TOEFL. Acceptance level for most Faculties at Edinburgh is now set at IELTS 6.5 overall, with no module score below 6.0; candidates who choose to take TOEFL are also expected to take the supplementary Test of Written English. After acceptance, students are required to take TEAM as part of their matriculation at Edinburgh; in some Faculties, individuals are exempted if they have achieved IELTS 7.0 or higher for acceptance. In some cases, a text will contain a mixture of Active and Passive forms; the writer uses the Active to emphasise the actions or decision-making by the participant(s) involved, or the Passive when emphasising the procedure rather than the Task 2.9 Write a description of a common procedure related to academic life, for example: how students are assessed on your degree course how equipment is prepared for use in an experiment how to access an electronic database. If none of those suggestions suits you, then adapt the question to match your individual Describing causal relationships In academic writing it is unusual to see the sort of simple expressions of direct cause-and-effect that people use in everyday speech; this reflects the fact that academic research and discussion deals with complex issues. So a statement such as Poverty causes crime is very unlikely to occur in an academic text; not all poor people commit crimes, and conversely many crimes are committed by rich people. A more academically acceptable version of that sentence is Poverty is one of the causes of crime or Poverty may cause crime 22
27. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 2 - Information sequence: Describing Task 2.10 Practise using some cause / effect language: complete the sentences below with the six expressions provided. Take care with the prepositions. can result brings contributes lies affects has an influence 1 Poverty ______________ behind crime 2 Poverty ______________ to crime 3 Poverty ______________ in crime 4 Poverty ______________ on crime rates 5 Poverty ______________ crime 6 Poverty ______________ about crime Task 2.11 Which of the following factors do you think has the greatest effect on a person’s success in learning a foreign language? age sex height personality income musicality intelligence job Write a short text about how the factor you have chosen influences the way someone learns another (You could refer to cause/effect in Wordfinder, including the subsection on ‘having an effect on a person’, if you have access to a copy.) 23
28. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 2 - Information sequence: Describing Extension Tasks [Please do not send these tasks to us. If possible, show your answers to the tasks to another student and ask them for their comments and corrections.] You could practice the grammar studied in this unit by trying the following task(s): Task 2.12 Go to the library and find an interesting textbook. Copy out some of the paragraphs and draw a diagram to illustrate the flow of information in the paragraphs. Show your answers to someone. Task 2.13 Take a piece of academic writing you have done recently and select from it a short passage (e.g. your introduction). Identify the ways in which you have organised the information. Does if flow from old to new information? If not, change the order of information to make it flow better. Show your two versions to someone and ask them to identify which version flows better. 24
29. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 2 - Information sequence: Describing Study Notes for Unit 2 This unit is of particular importance to making your writing clear and understandable to the British reader. The area we deal with in the unit - the order in which information is presented in academic English - is often overlooked when people talk about 'grammar'. In fact, this is an area in which British students also have difficulties, because it is rarely taught in their English classes at school. Task 2.1 Our answer is given at the top of the second page of the unit. Task 2.2 No, it doesn’t. It displays the same weaknesses as Version 1 of the Norma text. Task 2.3 (There are 188,000 lakes in Finland) They greatly concern many people or: They are causing great concern to many people They are of great concern to many people Most of the larger lakes (or: ones) have been polluted by chemicals This was recently confirmed by a Finnish government report or: This was confirmed by a recent Finnish government report Task 2.4 The original order was C – E – B – D – A, with the old-new links shown below: Computers are an essential part of manufacturing industry. They have made possible improvements in production. One of these changes is the more economical use of raw materials. In addition, their introduction has led to (resulted in) faster manufacturing processes. Computerisation has now reduced the prices of many goods. Task 2.5 Sentence 6 would be better if it began: Repayments automatically begin in the April following… Task 2.6 Possible solution, with better ‘flow’: The first step in an archaeological excavation or survey is the selection of the site. First, the archaeologists should learn as much as they can about a site, such as who lived there, how old it is, and what timeframe it covered. They accomplish this initial analysis through the use of such things as maps, photographs, regional studies, oral histories, and historic documents of surrounding sites. Once this is done, the archaeologists must then assess the possible results of the excavation. They take into consideration whether or not the work done at a site will yield innovative or duplicated results. Because the information that comes from a site can only be viewed once, careful deliberation must also take place to determine whether or not the proper funds, technology, and human resources are available to perform the excavation properly. Note: The solution follows the pattern of referring back to what is known and giving new information. Most sentences start with something that has been mentioned in the previous sentence. This creates a good sense of cohesion and flow. In the original text, however, most new sentences start with a new idea, making it difficult for the reader to follow the thread of the story. 25
30. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 2 - Information sequence: Describing Task 2.7 is an open question, for which we have no sample answer. If you would like to email us your text, we will correct it (if you are one of our ESSENTIAL students) and return it to you with comments. We can then include it in a future version of this course, if you give us permission. Task 2.8 Sample answer: Data were collected on tree growth: density per hectare, diameter and height. The trees in the sample area were counted and then the tree density was calculated by dividing their number by the area. Each tree was measured for its diameter as breast height (dbh) in centimetres and the total tree height in metres. Next, the tree growth model was calculated by using the regression and interpolation model, in which the factors above were the ordinate factor and growth the abscissa Task 2.9 Sample answer: Academic posts at British universities are advertised in the national press and on the Internet. Applications are invited from candidates who meet the qualification criteria that are set out in the advert. A deadline is set, after which the applications are analysed. A shortlist is then drawn up of candidates who will be asked to attend an interview; reference letters are requested from the two or (normally) three referees named by each candidate. Once the shortlisted candidates have been interviewed, one is chosen and invited to take the post. If he or she decides not to accept it, then the second-best candidate is normally offered the job. Occasionally the post is re-advertised again and the whole process repeated if the chosen candidate turns down the post. So the British system is based on public advertising and personal references, unlike other countries where academic posts are awarded on the basis of competitive exams and testimonial letters. Task 2.10 1 lies 2 contributes 3 can result, or: plays a part 4 has an effect/influence 5 affects 6 brings Task 2.11 In my opinion personality has a great influence on a person’s success in learning a foreign language. Many aspects of personality have a direct effect on that learning. One of the most important is perseverance, which makes the learner work hard and not be affected by difficulties. Another side of personality which contributes to a person’s success in learning is whether he or she is optimistic. Also, motivation has a marked effect on how well someone learns; it usually prompts him/her to use as much intelligence as possible. Briefing Note by the Committee of Vice-Chancellors and Principals of the Universities of the United Kingdom. August 1995. Adapted from ‘A case study of two readers’ in Carrell, Devine and Eskey (eds) Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading. Cambridge University Press, 198, page 131. 26
31. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 3 – Indirectness: Making requests 3 INDIRECTNESS: Making requests We will be using the term indirectness in this unit to refer to ways of sounding polite or reasonable in the demands you make of other people. It may be that you will find yourself needing to ask for advice and help in a range of situations – in your Department, the Accommodation Office, the Advice Place, and so on. The English you use when you first approach the person can influence the way they receive you. British people value indirectness more than other English-speaking communities, and so in this unit we examine a number of ways of being effectively indirect. Task 3.1 What is the common feature of the six sentences below? (They are separate items - not a Could I ask you a favour? I wanted to make an appointment with Dr Flowers I was hoping to see Dr Flowers What was the name? Suppose I came back some time tomorrow morning? Would it be ok if I waited till she’s back? What they share is the use of a Past verb form (could, or Past Continuous, or Past Simple) to convey respect and reasonableness. Using a more direct-sounding form such as I want to make an appointment or I’m hoping to see Dr Flowers could give the impression that you are impatient, or that you are expecting other people to fit in with your needs. (Even if you are, it’s more effective with British people to appear not to!) Task 3.2 Think about how you would translate the six sentences into your first language. Would you express the verbs as past forms, or would it be done differently in your language? 27
32. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 3 – Indirectness: Making requests Written requests: Letters and emails While studying at Edinburgh you are likely to need to send various types of written messages to individuals or institutions. You may have to write to arrange an appointment, or to apply for funding, or for a job. In this sort of writing - especially in letters - it is important to follow the established conventions of formal English, and to express your requests politely. Task 3.3 Read the three letters on this page and the next, and underline the expressions that mark politeness. LETTER 1 Dr Mary Close Department of Chaotics 18 Buccleuch Place Edinburgh EH8 9DX 2 August 2008 Dear Dr Close I am currently studying on the MSc in Applied Chaotics, and am now considering whether to apply to do a higher degree. During the course of my studies, I have become increasingly interested in some of the more theoretical aspects of environmental chaotics. As this is your field of special expertise, my Course Director, Dr Hector Braine, has suggested that I might ask you for advice. I wonder if it would be possible for me to meet you briefly at some point over the next three weeks to discuss my ideas for research? I am free every afternoon after 3.30, except Thursdays, and on Friday mornings. Could you possibly let me know whether any of these times would be suitable? I would hope not to take up more than half an hour of your time. You could contact me by e-mail, or leave a note in my pigeon-hole in the Department. Yours sincerely Paul Hsiao [email protected] 28
33. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 3 – Indirectness: Making requests LETTER 2 Gillian Brown Director of Studies English Language Teaching Centre 21 Hill Place Edinburgh EH8 9DP 33 Dalziel Terrace Edinburgh EH22 6BZ 2 February 2010 Dear Gillian Brown, At the suggestion of Kenneth Anderson, I am writing to ask if the English Language Centre might have need of a teacher for any of its courses in August and/or September. Edinburgh is my home town and working at Edinburgh would give me an opportunity to spend some time at home as well. My preference would be for work on either a general English or EAP course, though I would be ready to do other teaching as well. I enclose a recent version of my CV. I look forward to hearing from you or one of your colleagues. Yours sincerely, LETTER 3 Dr J. Khan Institute of Sociological Research University of Auchtermuchty New Zealand 18 September 2008 Dear Dr Khan I would greatly appreciate receiving a reprint of your article “Towards a semiology of graffiti”. From what I know of your other work, this article would be very relevant to my research. Thanking you in advance. Yours sincerely Phil Anderer Task 4 Underline the instances of would in the three letters. 29
34. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 3 – Indirectness: Making requests The modal verb would occurs frequently in formal letters like those we have just looked at, indicating that the situation you are talking about is uncertain or hypothetical. Using would in requests and suggestions in letters expresses polite ‘distance’. One way of explaining why English adopts this form is to think of it as a hidden conditional: if the person helped, you would be grateful. Task 3.5 Rewrite these examples as full conditional sentences, like the first one: My preference would be for evening work. = I would prefer evening work if it were available I would greatly appreciate receiving your article. = Obviously I would be willing to accept other work = Task 3.6 Below are 20 examples of would used in letters of application from teachers looking for work at ELTC. Underline the would expressions. When you have done all 20 sentences, on the next page write down the most common ones. Then answer the questions that follow. 1. As well as teaching English I would also be interested in teaching Italian or Turkish 2. I would not like to apply for the advertised posts but would very much like to be considered for any possible vacant post on either a part-time or a full-time basis. 3. I would be willing to come over to the Centre to discuss the matter with you at your convenience. 4. I would be very grateful if you could send me further details of the posts and let me know if you would consider me for one of the positions available. 5. I have enclosed my CV and would be grateful if you could let me know of any vacancies. 6. I would be most grateful if you could let me know whether you are likely to require any teaching staff during this period. 7. If you wish to obtain references, I would suggest that you contact ---- and ----. 8. Would it be possible to come and see you about the possibility of finding work with the Centre? 9. I would be able to come and see you any time next week. 10. I would very much like to have further details. 30
35. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 3 – Indirectness: Making requests 11. I would be interested in doing some teaching at Hill Place during the summer and enclose my CV for your inspection. 12. I am particularly interested in the English for University Studies course but would also be willing to assist in General English courses. 13. However, from June this year I'll be seeking employment of an EFL/SL/SP nature and would be grateful if you could keep my application under consideration should any vacancies occur. 14. Alternatively I would be very grateful if you could give me any other addresses to contact. 15. I am interested in gaining experience in the field of EFL teacher training and would be grateful if, in your reply, you could indicate any possibilities of my being able to do so in your department. 16. If you have any information which might be of use, I would be grateful to hear from you at the address on the enclosed CV. 17. On completion of my contract in April I shall be returning to the UK and would welcome the opportunity to teach in the language department of a University or College of Higher Education. 18. I would very much like to be considered for this work and enclose a copy of my CV which gives my personal details, education and previous experience. 19. In response to your advertisement for an English teacher to work in Edinburgh this summer, I would like to be considered for the post. 20. I would be most grateful if you could let me know of any post available at the English Language Teaching Centre or elsewhere in Edinburgh. Data supplied by Dr Hugh Trappes-Lomax 1. The function of these letters is to apply for jobs. Why do people usually write I would like to apply rather than I am applying? 2. Which expressions are used to make polite requests? Write them below: 3. Write down the expressions used to indicate interest. 31
36. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 3 – Indirectness: Making requests 4. In what ways can the expression I would like to be made more emphatic? 5. What about I would be grateful? 6. Look at the sentences which contain if. Do they follow the rules you have previously learned for ‘conditional’ sentences? (We will come back to conditional sentences in Unit 7). Would is not the only way to express ‘polite distance’. Here are some others: I feel I could contribute to such a department in three ways: teaching EAP/ESP to overseas students; assisting with teacher training programmes for both overseas and "domestic" teacher trainees and helping to produce relevant course materials. Since then I have found employment teaching general English and commercial English, but I was wondering whether you have any vacancies for after the summer, or whether you could keep me in mind for next year. I am writing to you to ask if the Centre might need a teacher, or teacher trainer, for any of its courses during August and/or September. 32
37. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 3 – Indirectness: Making requests The language of requests Task 3.7 Complete the gaps in the box below. (If you have a copy of Wordfinder, you could look at the entry for request.) LANGUAGE BOX: Making a request Asking for something to ask someone _____ something to request something ______ someone to _______ a request ______ something to apply ____ someone ____ something to ________ an application Asking someone to do something to ask someone ___ ____ something for you to ask someone if / whether _____ ______ do something to ask a favour _____ someone Task 3.8 Write down six ways of making a request. What do you think is the best way to create an opening (= prepare the reader) for a request? (Again, you could look at the Wordfinder entry, if you have a copy of the book.) 33
38. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 3 – Indirectness: Making requests Task 3.9 Read the email message below and fill in the gaps with an appropriate tense of these verbs: TRY BE WONDER HAVE TROUBLE COME CAN READ I ____ sorry to ___________ you, but I just ________________ whether you ________ Joan Shearing’s correct email address? I ___________ her article on vocabulary in a recent issue of "Independence" and ______________ to email her at the address given, but my message ___________ back marked 'addressee unknown'. ___________ you help? Many thanks, if you can. Tony Lynch Expressing a problem Task 3.10 Consult a good dictionary to check that you understand the differences in meaning and in grammar between the items in the box below. (Or look up problem in Wordfinder.) LANGUAGE BOX: Expressing a problem difficulty trouble hitch snag puzzle question dilemma obstacle Verbs to face to tackle to arise to overcome to be in to pose to work on to work itself out to sort out to resolve to encounter to be engaged on 34
39. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 3 – Indirectness: Making requests Extension Tasks [Please do not send these tasks to us. If possible, show your answers to the tasks to another student and ask them for their comments and corrections.] You could practice the grammar studied in this unit by trying the following task(s): Task 3.11 Think of a problem you have faced since you came to Edinburgh and have not been able to resolve. Write an email explaining the problem, what you have done and why that hasn’t worked. Use as many items as possible from the Language Box on page 34. Task 3.12 Choose one of the following situations and write an appropriate letter / email. If you choose to write a letter, use one of the conventional formats shown earlier in this 1. You intend to do some research (for an MSc project, or as part of a research degree, for example) in an area that you know relatively little about. Your course director / supervisor has advised you to talk to Dr Albert Squeer, a lecturer in the School whom you do not know well. Write Dr Squeer a short letter /email asking for an appointment. Explain briefly why you want to see him, but do not go into too much detail. Indicate the times that would be suitable for you. 2. Write a letter / email to your course director, asking her to extend a deadline for the writing assignment you are currently working on. Give reasons for your request. 35
40. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 3 – Indirectness: Making requests Study Notes for Unit 3 Task 3.1 All six sentences contain a past form: could / wanted / was hoping to / was / came back / waited Task 3.2 Open question. Many European languages also use a verb feature (e.g. Past or Subjunctive) to show indirectness, but unlike English some of them also offer a choice of different forms of you - some informal and others more formal. Languages such as Japanese use certain expressions to show deference and humility. (Please let us know about your language, if you have a different way). Tasks 3.3 and 3.4 Letter 1 … that I might ask you for… I wonder if it would be possible… Could you possibly let me know… I would hope not to… You could contact me… Letter 2 … if the Centre might have… would give me an opportunity to… My preference would be for I would be ready to… Letter 3 I would greatly appreciate… … would be very relevant … Task 3.5 I would greatly appreciate it if you could send me your article Obviously I would be willing to do other work if the sort of work I want were not available Task 3.6 1. As well as teaching English I would also be interested in teaching Italian or Turkish 2. I would not like to apply for the advertised posts but would very much like to be considered for any possible vacant post on either a part-time or a full-time basis. 3. I would be willing to come over to the Centre to discuss the matter with you at your convenience. 4. I would be very grateful if you could send me further details of the posts and let me know if you would consider me for one of the positions available. 5. I have enclosed my CV and would be grateful if you could let me know of any vacancies. 6. I would be most grateful if you could let me know whether you are likely to require any teaching staff during this period. 7. If you wish to obtain references, I would suggest that you contact ---- and ----. 8. Would it be possible to come and see you about the possibility of finding work with the Centre? 9. I would be able to come and see you any time next week. 36
41. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 3 – Indirectness: Making requests 10. I would very much like to have further details. 11. I would be interested in doing some teaching at Hill Place during the summer and enclose my CV for your inspection. 12. I am particularly interested in the English for University Studies course but would also be willing to assist in General English courses. 13. However, from June this year I'll be seeking employment of an EFL/SL/SP nature and would be grateful if you could keep my application under consideration should any vacancies occur. 14. Alternatively I would be very grateful if you could give me any other addresses to contact. 15. I am interested in gaining experience in the field of EFL teacher training and would be grateful if, in your reply, you could indicate any possibilities of my being able to do so in your department. 16. If you have any information which might be of use, I would be grateful to hear from you at the address on the enclosed CV. 17. On completion of my contract in April I shall be returning to the UK and would welcome the opportunity to teach in the language department of a University or College of Higher Education. 18. I would very much like to be considered for this work and enclose a copy of my CV which gives my personal details, education and previous experience. 19. In response to your advertisement for an English teacher to work in Edinburgh this summer, I would like to be considered for the post. 20. I would be most grateful if you could let me know of any post available at the English Language Teaching Centre or elsewhere in Edinburgh. 1. I would like to apply emphasises the power relationship; I am applying sounds too direct. 2. Expressions to make polite requests: any of the ones underlined above. Notice, too, how if you could follows I would be grateful…, making a very polite combination. 3. Expressions showing interest in a job: I would like to be considered for… I would welcome the opportunity to… 4/5. I would very much like to; I would be most grateful / very grateful 37
42. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 3 – Indirectness: Making requests Task 3.7 Asking for something to ask someone FOR something to request something FROM someone to MAKE a request FOR something to apply TO someone FOR something to MAKE an application Asking someone to do something to ask someone TO DO something for you to ask someone if / whether THEY CAN do something to ask a favour OF someone Task 3.8 Will you… Would you… Can you… Could you possibly… Do you mind… Would you mind ? Opener: I’m sorry to bother you… (I’m sorry to trouble you… I’m sorry to be a nuisance…) Task 3.9 I AM sorry to TROUBLE you, but I just WONDERED whether you HAVE/HAD Joan Shearing’s correct email address? I READ her article on vocabulary in a recent issue of "Independence" and TRIED to email her at the address given, but my message CAME back marked 'addressee unknown'. COULD/CAN you help? Task 3.10 The nouns should be straightforward. The verbs can be grouped like this: Initial identification of the difficulty: X poses a problem we face /encounter a problem = a problem arises we are in difficulty / trouble Attempt to deal with it: we tackle / work on / are engaged on the problem Successful dealing with it: we sort out / overcome / resolve the problem Sometimes the problem resolves itself: X has worked itself out / sorted itself out 38
43. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 3 – Indirectness: Making requests Task 3.11 Sample answer: When I arrived in Edinburgh, I faced many difficulties. The worst problems were the language and the feeling that I would not see my home for almost a year. I found it difficult to make requests of people, to apply for things, and to ask people for help. That has always been hard for me, even in my own Now the situation is much easier. Nevertheless I still have not managed to resolve all my grammar problems. I probably have not worked hard enough because I am sometimes lazy and write very little in English. There is obviously a link between speaking, listening, reading and writing, but I have not solved the puzzle. Task 3.12 Sample answer to task type 2: Dr T Dewson Department of Philosophy David Hume Tower 14 November 2009 Dear Dr Dewson, I am writing to ask if it would be possible for me to have an extension for my assignment. Recently I have been working on my outline for the conference which I will be attending at the end of this month in Manchester. I am fully aware that it is very important for me to hand in my current assignment on time. However, as you may know, it would also be very beneficial for my future career if I could get my paper published in the proceedings from the conference. Would it therefore be possible for you to extend the deadline for my assignment by two weeks? I am very sorry if this causes you any difficulties. I look forward to your response. Yours sincerely 39
44. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 4 – The Future: Predicting and proposing 4 THE FUTURE: PREDICTING AND PROPOSING “I’ve never predicted anything and I never will do” Paul Gascoigne, footballer Verb Forms Task 4.1 Read the text below and underline all the future verbs. i WORLD TRENDS st As we move towards the 21 century, cheap labour and plentiful raw materials are losing their status as keys to economic development. Instead of manufacturing, it is the information and service sectors that will provide new growth. Powering this change is the astonishing worldwide expansion of the computer industry. As automation makes armies of workers in heavy industry redundant, the successful nations will be those that can produce an educated population and a large pool of scientists and engineers. Good education explains, in part, the success of Japan, and the rapid rise of other south and east Asian nations. For the older industrialised nations, the provision of a constantly better trained and more flexible workforce is a growing challenge which the educational system will find hard to As the rapidly industrialising nations catch up, they can also expect to encounter other problems of the wealthy, including the need to adapt to a society containing a much higher proportion of old people. Japan will encounter the fastest demographic change of all. Urbanisation will continue at a rapid pace in the industrialising nations. By 2020 these countries will have caught up with the Western world; half their populations will be living in towns and cities. Growing wealth and urbanisation can be expected to provide new opportunities and play a part in reducing inequalities between men and women, in education and in income. The extremes of poverty will also be eliminated in the early stages of development, but the gap between rich and poor is certain to remain. Traditional social structures will weaken bringing increases in divorce, births outside marriage and crime. As nations enter the post-industrial phase, long-term unemployment seems likely to be added to their problems, intensifying these trends. Task 4.2 You should have found nine verbs containing the word will. How many different tenses are there among the nine cases? Task 4.3 Look again at that text. Can you find any other verbs, which do not contain the word will, that are used to express the notion of the future? If so, circle them. 40
45. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 4 – The Future: Predicting and proposing The way we describe future events, plans and possibilities in English is quite complex. Firstly, there is no single “Future Tense” in English; instead we have a variety of verb forms, such as Modal verbs, expressing different shades of meaning. Secondly, academic writing features a range of non-verb vocabulary (nouns, adjectives and adverbs) referring to the future. LANGUAGE BOX: Verb forms expressing the future (All the forms shown below are found in both Active and Passive) I will [verb] to talk about what you think or guess or expect the future to be The second phase of my research will be trickier than this one I am going to [verb] to talk about decisions or firm intentions I’m going to ask her for a meeting next week Present Continuous to talk about fixed plans or arrangements Did I tell you that we’re getting a new computer on Thursday? Present Simple to talk about timetables or schedules Next term starts on 12 October I am + TO (verb) to talk about fixed plans or decisions made by someone else The Principal is to visit the new building in a couple of weeks Future Continuous to talk about something that will be going on at a certain time in the future By the year 2050 computers will be doing most housework tasks Task 4.4 Find the most suitable form of these verbs, to go in the appropriate space in the sentences below. HAVE (twice) BE (twice) DISCUSS GIVE GO FINISH 1 Most universities __________________ fewer students if the economic downturn continues. 2 I expect Friday’s meeting ______________ a long one, because we ________________ next year’s budget. 3 I’m sorry, but Dr Evans ______________ very busy tomorrow. He ______________ two lectures and then he _________________ to the conference at York. 4 Do you think you _________________ your project ready for Friday? I don’t think I ___________________ mine by then. 41
46. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 4 – The Future: Predicting and proposing In some situations you may need to be more precise about the relative timing of events in the future. Two further options are offered by the Future Perfect tenses. LANGUAGE BOX: The Future Perfect 1. Simple to refer to something that will have been completed by a specific point I (shall) will have [verb+ED] (Active) He will have finished his project by the time you see him again (Passive) The equipment will have been repaired by the end of June 2. Continuous to emphasise how long something will have continued by a certain time I (shall) will have been [verb+ING] (Active) In July he will have been working at ELTC for 20 years (The Passive form of this tense is very rare) Task 4.5 Maria is doing an MSc in Traffic Observation at KB. One of the course requirements is that the students have to spend 120 hours (in term time) on a traffic census, counting vehicles in Mayfield Road. They can put in a maximum of 8 hours in any one week. Maria started her observation in week 2 of the Autumn Term and intends to continue doing 8 hours a week. Fill in the spaces to complete these statements about Maria. (This tests your grammar, your knowledge of the University timetable AND your maths!) 1 By the start of the Christmas vacation she ___________________________ _____ hours observation. 2 By the beginning of February she _________________________________ traffic for _____ weeks. 3 By the time she completes her observation requirement, she ___________________ approximately 25,000 vehicles. 42
47. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 4 – The Future: Predicting and proposing Will and going to in speech and writing As you may have noticed since you came to Edinburgh, people tend in everyday speech to mix their use of the Future forms. In particular, you hear will and going to used interchangeably, even in the same sentence: “We’re going to see quite a bit of heavy rain in most parts of the country over the next 24 hours, and that will continue through most of the next day or so in the far north-west, so it’s not going to be very pleasant at all” (BBC weather forecast) However, in academic writing will is much more common than going to. Task 4.6 ii The extract below comes from a television documentary about research into malaria by Dr Manuel Patarroyo in Colombia. It shows a US Army doctor’s comments on the potential value of a vaccine developed by the project team. Read what the doctor said and underline all the Future verbs he used. Which ones would you expect him to change, if he were writing instead of speaking? Doctor I’m pretty sure there’s a reasonable chance that we’re going to find a positive response to Patarroyo’s vaccine. Don’t forget, though, that so far, even in his best studies, he’s only finding 50 to 60 per cent protection. We just don’t know whether that’s going to be increased by making higher levels of antibodies - and perhaps new formulations will help - or whether this vaccine’s going to have to be combined with another one, like sporozoite, to get the 80 or 90 or 100 per cent protection we’re going to need. Task 4.7 (optional) Re-write the doctor’s comments in an academic style. As well as making changes to the Future forms, you will need to change some other features of his speech (e.g. informal expressions, redundancy) to make it acceptable as written English for the university context. NB - You should not send this to your tutor, but you can compare your text with that on page 46 of this 43
48. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 4 – The Future: Predicting and proposing Verbs of intention We can express the future not only by using a grammatical Future form, but also by choosing a verb whose meaning contains the notion of future action or intention to Task 4.8 Put the following verbs into one of the two spaces below, depending on whether they are followed by the Infinitive (to appoint) or the Gerund (appointing): (You can find more information in the Wordfinder Dictionary entry for intend/plan - intentions.) is planning on / aims / is thinking of / intends / plans / is planning The College to appoint a new Postgraduate Officer The College appointing a new Postgraduate Officer Are there any differences in the meaning of the verbs you have written in? Task 4.9 The extract below is from the final section of a journal article on research into listening, where the author was discussing the possible directions for future research. He uses no Future verb forms. So how does he express the notion of the future? Underline the words he uses for that purpose. iii FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN LISTENING RESEARCH This review has attempted to reflect the range of recent listening comprehension research. At this point it is appropriate to speculate about avenues for future work. Several have already been suggested: an expansion of research into the impact on listening comprehension of the visual element in electronic media; investigation in a wider variety of languages into the ways in which first-language speech patterns influence listening in a second language; and exploration of the link between listening level and listening strategies. In addition, I foresee three likely strands of investigation into listening. Firstly, current research suggests a renewed interest in the way listeners monitor and remedy gaps in comprehension. Secondly, we can expect further research adopting a parallel interactive approach to listening, combining the tendencies known by the shorthand labels of ‘top-down- and ‘bottom-up’. Thirdly, we may see a continued momentum towards an ultimately more complete view of the listener, achieved through studies adopting the listener’s individual point of view, and in more naturalistic contexts. 44
49. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 4 – The Future: Predicting and proposing Non-Verb Forms Although people tend to think of the Future in terms of verbs (in that text: speculate, foresee), there are other grammatical devices for writing about events to come. Also in the text about listening research were examples of future-orientated nouns (e.g. direction, avenue, exploration, strand), adjectives (e.g. continued, further) and adverbs LANGUAGE BOX: Intentions, plans and outcomes 1. Verbs arrange organise plan (ahead) draw up a plan outline succeed in fail 2. Nouns schedule plan planning proposal success failure 3. Adjectives unplanned spontaneous (versus planned) involuntary (versus intentional or deliberate) (un)successful 4. Adverbs spontaneously at short notice involuntarily according to plan (go) smoothly (You can find more information in the Wordfinder Dictionary entry for intend/plan - intentions.) 45
50. Grammar for Academic Writing: Unit 4 – The Future: Predicting and proposing Extension Tasks [Please do not send these tasks to us. If possible, show your answers to the tasks to another student and ask them for their comments and corrections.] You could practice the grammar studied in this unit by trying the following task(s): Task 4.10 This task comes in three alternative versions. If you are a Master’s student, do version A; if you are doing research, do version B; and if you are an undergraduate, do version C. A. Your Programme Organiser sends you an e-mail, asking you to tell her your first thoughts on the topic you intend to do for your summer dissertation. She wants to know about it now, so that she can allocate an appropriate member of staff to supervise your dissertation. Write a text outlining your plans. B. Your Supervisor sends you an e-mail, asking you to give a talk on your research topic at the School’s graduate seminar in two weeks’ time, and to send her an abstract for the talk. Write an e-mail message in reply: Either accept her invitation and compose the abstract; or decline the invitation and tell her why you’re not yet ready to give a talk, and when you will be able to do so. C. Your Personal Tutor e-mails you and asks what your plans are for next semester: which courses you would like to take. S/He also needs to know whether you are going to spend the Christmas vacation in the UK or at home, and when you will be finally leaving Edinburgh. Task 4.11 Draft a short summary of your English learning ‘career’, in three paragraphs: - In the first, describe where / when / how you studied English before coming to Scotland. [For this paragraph, use Past tenses] - In the second, explain what you have done so far in Edinburgh to improve your English (both in class and in the ‘real world’). Say which areas of English you have tried to improve in particular, how you have done that, and how well you think you have done. [In this one, you will probably need to use mainly the Present Perfect]. - In the final paragraph, outline your plans for the future (immediate and longer- term), as far as learning English is concerned - will you be attending further ELTT classes next term? How do you intend to continue your progress after you finish this course today? [Here, use the various Future verb and non-verb expressions that we have practised in this unit] 46
+1-315-636-4485
+91 98151-74050 
