The aim of this thesis is to get a better understanding of the role of practical work in physics education in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR). The Lao PDR is one of the least developed countries in the world with a weak base for science, and poor market opportunities for science graduates.
1. The Role of Practical Work in Physics Education in Lao PDR Thongloon Vilaythong Doctoral Thesis Department of Physics SE–901 87 Umeå University Umeå, Sweden 2011
2. Thongloon Vilaythong ISBN: 978-91-7459-172-9 Elektronisk version tillgänglig på http://umu.diva-portal.org/ Printed by: Print & Media, Umeå universitet Umeå, Sweden 2011
3. To my wife Vilay, my son Pakaysit, my daughter Needthida, and all my relatives
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5. The aim of this thesis is to get a better understanding of the role of practical work in physics education in the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR). The Lao PDR is one of least developed countries in the world with a weak base for science, and poor market opportunities for science graduates. The rapidly expanding educational system has many problems concerning quality of the infrastructure and staff competence. A combination of qualitative and quantitative methods was used in the study in order to assure reliability of the results. Data was collected through questionnaires, interviews, video-recordings, and my own ethnographic experiences of working in the Lao educational system for more than thirty years. The study was informed and results analysed with help of curriculum perspective and Cultural-Historical Activity Theory (CHAT). The findings show that Lao physics education curriculum at all levels is dominated by very traditional forms of teaching with an almost total absence of practical. Official curricular documents have statements prescribing teachers to do practical work in high school and university courses. However, few institutions have functioning equipment and skilled teachers for organising practical activities. Therefore, the majority of Lao students come to university and even can finish university without experience of practical work in physics. This shows the gap that exists between intended and implemented curricula. The majority of the students understand the importance of having practical activities in physics. However, after being exposed to laboratory experiments in an introductory physics course, they expressed criticism about the quality of instruction and the process of the practical work organisation. The laboratory group work analysis showed that discussions were mainly focused on understanding the experimental procedures, manipulating equipment, and collecting data for the report rather than on the physics content (object of activity, in CHAT terms). Based on the research results, it is possible to suggest that a systemic approach is needed to stimulate the development of a new practical work culture in schools and universities. This approach should include training and incentives for science teachers, development of assessment strategies including practical work, maintenance structures for physics equipment, and technical support for the organisation of demonstrations and laboratory i
6. Syftet med denna avhandling är att få en bättre förståelse av den roll praktiskt arbete har i fysikundervisningen i Demokratiska folkrepubliken Laos. Laos är ett av de minst utvecklade länderna i världen med en svag bas för vetenskap och dålig arbetsmarknad för akademiker. Det snabbt expanderande utbildningssystemet har många problem med kvaliteten på infrastrukturen och personalens kompetens. En kombination av kvalitativa och kvantitativa metoder har använts i denna studie för att säkerställa resultatens tillförlitlighet. Data samlades in genom enkäter, intervjuer, video-inspelningar, och mina egna etnografiska erfarenheter av att arbeta i det laotiska utbildningssystemet i mer än trettio år. Studien var upplyst av och resultaten analyserade med hjälp av läroplansteori och kulturhistorisk verksamhetsteori (CHAT). Resultaten visar att fysikundervisningen i Laos på alla nivåer domineras av mycket traditionella former av undervisning nästan helt utan praktiskt arbete. Officiella läroplaner föreskriver att lärare ska inkludera praktiskt arbete i gymnasie- och universitetskurser. Emellertid har få institutioner fungerande utrustning och kompetenta lärare som kan organisera praktisk verksamhet. Därför kommer en majoritet av laotiska studenter till universitetet och de kan till och med avsluta universitetsstudierna utan erfarenhet av praktiskt arbete inom fysik. Detta visar på den existerande klyftan mellan avsedd och genomförd läroplan. Majoriteten av studenterna förstår vikten av att ha praktiska aktiviteter i fysik, men efter att ha utsatts för laborationer i en inledande fysikkurs uttryckte de kritik om kvaliteten på undervisningen och hur det praktiska arbetet organiserades. En analys av grupparbeten under en fysiklaboration visade att diskussionerna främst var inriktade på att förstå de experimentella procedurerna, manipulera utrustning och samla in data till labrapporten snarare än att diskutera fysikinnehållet (aktivitetens object i CHAT-terminologi). Forskningsresultaten visar att det behövs en insats på systemnivå för att stimulera utvecklingen av en ny kultur för praktiskt arbete i skolor och universitet. Denna strategi bör omfatta utbildning och incitament för lärare, utveckling av strategier för bedömning inklusive praktiskt arbete, underhållsstrukturer för fysikutrustning och tekniskt stöd för att anordna demonstrationer och laborationer. ii
9. List of papers The thesis is based on the following peer-reviewed articles: I. Luangrath, P. & Vilaythong, T. (2010). An Analysis of the Students’ Perceptions of Physics in Science Foundation Studies at the National University of Laos. Canadian and International Education Journal, 39(1), 32-40. II. Vilaythong, T. & Popov, O. (2008). The Situation with Practical Work in Physics Education in Laos. In proceedings of the XIII. IOSTE Symposium (Izmir - Turkey, September 21-26, 2008), pp. 559-565. III. Vilaythong, T., Pettersson, S. & Popov, O. (2010). Analysis of Lao university students’ collaborative activities in a pendulum experiment. In: D. Raine, C. Hurkett, and L. Rogers (Eds.). Physics Community & Cooperation: Selected Contributions from the GIREP-EPEC & PHEC 2009 International Conference, pp. 289-300. http://physics.le.ac.uk/girep2009/ConferenceProceedings/GIREP2009 _ConferenceProceedings_Volume1.pdf IV. Popov, O. & Vilaythong, T. (2009). Contemporary Curriculum Challenges in Undergraduate Physics Education in Laos. In proceedings of the 2009 EASE International Conference of East-Asian Science Education, first Biennial EASE Conference, October 21-23, 2009, Taipei, Taiwan, pp. 161-177. V. Popov, O. & Vilaythong, T. (2010). Constructing Physics Education in Different Contexts: Changing contexts–Changing values. In proceed- ings of the XIV. IOSTE Symposium (Bled, Slovenia, June 13–18, 2010), pp. 917–927. http://www.ioste.org/pdf/proceed14.pdf VI. Vilaythong, T. & Popov, O. (2011). Acting with pendulum – the process matters where the object also should. Synopsis of the paper accepted for ESERA 2011, Lyon, France, September 5-9, 2011. v
11. Table of Contents Abstract i Sammanfattning ii ¦½¹ì÷®-¹¨Ó- iii List of papers v Table of Contents vii I. Introduction 1 1.1. Personal background and motivation for the study 1 1.2. National context 3 1.3. Education in Laos 3 1.4. Physics education in Laos 5 II. Theoretical framework and positioning in the field 7 2.1. Conceptualisation of the practical work in physics education 7 2.2. Conceptualisation of context 10 2.3. Cultural-Historical Activity Theory 12 2.4. Curriculum perspective 13 III. Purpose and rationale of the research 16 3.1. Purpose of the research 16 3.2. Rationale of the research 16 3.2.1. Need of understanding physics education in the Lao context 16 3.2.2. The need to enforce the role of practical work in physics education 16 IV. Methodology 18 4.1. Methods of data collection and sample of the studies 18 4.1.1. Questionnaires 21 4.1.2. Interviews 21 4.1.3. Video recordings 22 4.2. Selection of informants 22 4.3. Methods of data analysis 24 V. Main findings 26 5.1. High expectations and low satisfaction with laboratory work 26 5.2. The educational context hinders the implementation of practical work 26 5.3. Student active collaboration during the laboratory work 27 5.4. Unclear place of lab work in physics studies 28 VI. Conclusions and discussions 29 6.1. Reflections about the methodology of the study 29 6.2. Reflections on the implemented practical work 30 6.3. Reflections on the reasons for the lack of practical work in physics education in Laos 31 6.4. What have I learned from practical activities implemented at NUOL 33 VII. Summary of the articles 34 7.1. Article I: An Analysis of the Students’ Perceptions of Physics in Science Foundation Studies at the National University of Laos 34 vii
12. 7.2. Article II: The Situation with Practical Work in Physics Education in Laos 34 7.3. Article III: Analysis of Lao university students’ collaborative activities in a pendulum experiment 35 7.4. Article IV: Contemporary Curriculum Challenges in Undergraduate Physics Education 36 7.5. Article V: Constructing Physics Education in Different Contexts: Changing contexts – Changing values 37 7.6. Article VI: Acting with pendulum – the process matters where the object also should 37 Acknowledgements 39 References 41 viii
13. I. Introduction 1.1. Personal background and motivation for the study I will start presentation of my research with an autobiographical narrative describing my life-story as a physics teacher in the context of recent historical changes in Laos1. This brief auto ethnographic description hopefully can illustrate the situation of many physics teachers in the country and give the reader a better understanding of the complexities of the social context where educational developments are taking place. According to my passport, I was born in 1960. However I do not know my real date of birth and I am unable to find further information. I was born in a remote, rural village in Northern Laos and my parents died when I was very young. Therefore, all presentations related to my age in the following text should be considered as approximate. From 1967 to 1970 I studied in a rural primary school in the village where my relatives lived, located about a three-day walk from Luoang Prabang, the ancient capital of Laos and the nearest city to my village. Then, the American bombing of Laos started and my village moved continuously for almost three years, in search of a safe location for resettlement. There was no school available during this period. In 1973, at the age of 14, I was the only young person in my village that could read and write. As a result, when a political representative of the Lao Revolutionary Army visited my village, he took me to a special camp in a forest for three months of pedagogical training. Afterwards, I returned to my village as a primary school teacher to teach literacy to my former friends. Thus, my pedagogical career began 38 years ago. In 1977, after three years of teaching in my village, I got the opportunity to study at Luoang Prabang, first at the Primary School Teacher Training Centre and later at the Secondary School Teacher Training Centre (now the Luoang Prabang Teachers Training College). I received my diploma as a natural science teacher in 1982. My studies in natural science never included practical work. Lectures and problem solving exercises were the only teaching methods. We did not even see a science textbook during this time. Most of the old textbooks in foreign languages, French and English, were destroyed by the revolutionary government. Only Russian and Vietnamese textbooks were allowed, however our science teachers did not have them. Some of our teachers used their lecture-notes and we copied what they wrote on the blackboard. 1 Laos and Lao PDR are used interchangeably. Laos is widely used by researchers and policy markers including government reports. Lao PDR is the official name of the country since 1975. For pragmatic reasons and sometimes depending on the time period discussed, both names are used in this study. 1
14. In 1984, after working in Luoang Prabang as a secondary school teacher for two years, I was selected to study physics at the University of Education Hanoi 1 in Vietnam (now the Hanoi National University of Education). For the first time in my life I had access to laboratory equipment as well as library services. However, access was limited to using rather advanced equipment in general physics courses, not in physics didactics courses for teaching in school. After six years of study, I graduated with distinction as a physics teacher and was appointed to teach mechanics at the National Institute of Pedagogy of Vientiane (NIPV). My teaching at NIPV included theory and problem solving. We had a lot of demonstration and laboratory equipment at NIPV provided by UNESCO but neither I nor the other teachers used it. There was no tradition of using laboratories. The official curriculum prescribed demonstrations and laboratory work, however nobody controlled or stimulated its implementation. Teachers had a lot of other problems to deal with in life (e.g. daily survival, as living conditions were inadequate) rather than spending time preparing experiments for students. In 1995, I was selected to go to Chiang Mai University (Thailand) with funding from DAAD (Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst) and in 1999 I graduated with a Master of Science with specialisation in Physics Teaching. My Master’s thesis research focused on nuclear physics. During this period I did not receive any training in how to carry out demonstrations or organise experimental work with students. Physics didactics was a theoretical subject about pedagogical rules, principles, and theories. So, even with a Master’s in Physics Education, I never learned nor was taught to do practical laboratory work in the classroom. My first real experience of learning about how to do practical work in science came when I was asked by the Ministry of Education of Laos to work as a translator for a Vietnamese project that donated laboratory equipment to two boarding schools for ethnic minority students from disadvantaged areas of Lao PDR during 2000 - 2001. I translated instructions from Vietnamese teachers and learned a lot myself. The equipment was quite simple, produced in Vietnam with local resources similar to those in Laos. From this experience, I started to reflect on the role of practical work in school and university physics teaching. At my work place, the Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, National University of Laos (NUOL), we have equipment from different foreign countries and agencies. Why this equipment is poorly used and what factors can influence the role of practical work became my research questions as a PhD student in Physics Education at Umea University under SIDA/SAREC – NUOL cooperation. 2
15. 1.2. National context Lao PDR is located in Southeast Asia. The country is surrounded by China to the north, Burma to the northwest, Thailand to the southwest, Cambodia to the southeast, and Vietnam to the east. Lao PDR is one of the poorest countries in the world. The country has a total area of 236,800 square kilometres. Seventy-five percent of the territory is covered by mountains. The population is about 5,600,000 with an average density of 23.6 persons per square kilometer (2005), one of the lowest in Asia. The population consists of 47 ethnic groups and four main language families: Lao-Tai, Mone-Khmer, Tibeto-Burmese, and Hmong-Ioumien. Each ethnic group has its own unique traditions and culture. The major religion of the country is Buddhism (7 of 10 Lao people are Buddhists). About 30 percent of the population has animistic beliefs. There are also representatives of Christian, Muslim and Bahai faiths, (APPF, 2009). For centuries Laos was dominated by more powerful countries. In 1778, Laos was occupied by Siam/Thailand for more than a century. From 1893 to 1954, Laos was a colony of France. From 1955 to 1975, the US Army and a pro-American marionette regime controlled Laos. During the Vietnam War Laos was heavily bombed by America (especially in 1970-73). In the period from 1973 to 1991, the Soviet Union and Vietnam had great political and economic influence over the country. There are about 2.2 million active people in the labour market. Among these people, 68 percent are illiterate, about 19 percent have completed primary education, seven percent have completed lower secondary, three percent have completed upper secondary, and three percent have some kind of post-secondary education (Phommanimith, 2008). Modernisation of the country demands advanced knowledge and technological skills in all sectors of the economy. The government of the country has accepted the challenge to move the educational system more closely toward international standards. The efficiency of management and teaching is in urgent need of development at all educational levels. Curricula and textbooks for schools are also in need of improvement. Higher education faces similar challenges. 1.3. Education in Laos Before 1975, Laos had three institutions that provided higher education level programs. These included the National Institute of Pedagogy of Vientiane, the Normal School of Viengsay (the two merged into one pedagogical institute in 1975), and the Royal School of Medicine (founded in 1969 and re-named the University of Health Sciences in 1975). 3
16. After the revolution and unification of the country in 1975, the Laos Government focused on human resource development. Many people were sent to study in Vietnam and the Eastern European countries, particularly the former Soviet Union. In 1995, the government started higher education reform aimed at the liberalisation and privatisation of higher education. The National University of Laos (NUOL), the first public university, was established in Vientiane capital city in 1995. Formal education in Lao PDR includes general education and higher education systems. The general education system consists of five years of primary education (grades 1-5); four years of lower secondary education (grades 6-9); and three years of upper secondary education (grades 10-12). This system was extended from eleven years into twelve years in 2009. The higher education system consists of higher diploma programs (3 years), Bachelor’s degree (5 years), Master’s degree programs (2 years), and doctoral programs (3 years). Over the last decade, basic education in Lao PDR has expanded rapidly but quality remains low, particularly in remote areas. There are large differences in education development between regions, ethnicities, urban and rural groups and genders. This is related to the lack of trained teachers, an acute shortage of basic teaching and learning materials, high student/teacher ratio and low availability of instruction time in comparison with the extension of content in the school curriculum, in particular in physics. The teachers’ salary level is also very low, about 70 USD per month, which provides little incentive to teachers’ to prepare for lessons. Many teachers must teach extra classes in order to earn extra money to provide basic living conditions for their families. Since the year 2000, higher education has been steadily growing in both number of universities and number of students. In the year 1995 there was only one university in Laos. Currently, there are five public universities in the country, eight teacher training colleges, and 92 private colleges (Ministry of Education, 2010). The number of students enrolled in higher education programs increases each year. For instance, 35,448 students were enrolled in undergraduate programs at NUOL in the academic year 2008 - 2009, and in 2009 - 2010 there were 40,787 students2. However, the quality of higher education is a matter of concern at all levels. According to Xaysomphou (2008), the poor quality of the graduates is alarming in both public and private educational institutions. 2 Information received from the National University of Laos academic office July 12, 2010. 4
17. 1.4. Physics education in Laos In this section I will briefly introduce the situation with physics education in schools and introductory physics courses at universities based mainly on my interviews, authoethnographic experiences and reflections, as there are no other systematic studies available in this field yet. All schools in Laos use the same curriculum and students do not have any choices about subjects or contents of study. Physics is introduced as a compulsory subject in upper secondary school. In lower secondary schools students study physics in combination with biology and chemistry as one subject called Natural Science. This subject is taught three hours per week in grades six, seven, and eight. Physics is taught as an independent subject from grade nine. The syllabus for grade nine focuses on Mechanics including studies of motion, projectiles, circular motions, forces, equilibrium, energy and mechanics of fluid. Analysis of the study content of physics in upper secondary school shows that syllabi are quite dense and overloaded with many topics. For example, the grade ten physics syllabus includes Temperature and Theory of Gases, Molecules, Electrostatics, Electricity and Magnetism. Physics in grade eleven consists of study of Oscillations and Waves, Sound, Optics, Alternating Current Circuits, and Atoms. The syllabus for grade twelve includes more advanced contents such as Kinematics, Dynamics, Oscillations and Waves, Sound, Electrostatics, Electric current and Direct- Current Circuits, Electro-magnetism, Optics, Nuclear Physics. However, according to anecdotal evidence collected during my meetings with teachers and school visits, topics like Alternating Current, Atomic physics and Nuclear Energy are seldom taught. There were three main reasons given for that. The major reason was a lack of time to complete the last topics in the syllabus. Another explanation was that this content is quite complex and teachers did not feel confident in working with it. The third reason was of a pragmatic character, teachers try to train their students for the final exam in grade twelve, but these topics are very seldom a part of it, so teachers prefer to focus on more probable examination content. At the end of the lessons school teachers usually give problems to solve and homework assignments. Many students cannot solve the problems by themselves. The situation in the classes is similar to what Lam-Fat (1977) described was typical for Hong Kong about thirty years ago: some students daydream in class, some cannot answer simple questions because they do not know what the questions mean, some cannot turn in their homework because they have not made an effort, and so on. Lao students usually wait for the teacher to solve problems on the blackboard and then copy solutions into their notebook. This “spoon feeding” tradition continues to be practiced by physics teachers at the university level. 5
18. Inadequate textbooks in the Lao language in lower and upper secondary education is another problem that physics teachers and students face. Currently, each grade has only one set of the physics textbook in the Lao language, and the quality is rather poor and outdated. Furthermore, teachers do not have a teachers’ manual. Teachers complain that the level of content in these textbooks is difficult to understand even for some teachers. Some high school teachers in Vientiane (the capital city) and provincial capitals use textbooks in the Thai language. However, teachers have to buy these books with their own money. Most of the students in schools share the opinion that physics is a difficult subject. Even many physics teachers experience difficulties when solving problems from the textbooks. For example, the grade ten textbook has about 300 problems. In my experience with in-service training courses of high school physics teachers in Vientiane, I found that even some good teachers admit that they could not solve more than one-fourth of these problems3. The Department of Physics at NUOL, where I am working, is the leading physics institution in the country. It has a rather long history and its ups and downs in development. One direct reflection I want to make is about the organisation and management of laboratory activities. During the 1980’s, laboratory work was an important part of the physics curriculum. There was an administrative unit for laboratory work with two technicians and a responsible teacher. They created a positive atmosphere of having practical work activities in different physics courses. This situation lasted until the early 1990’s. At this time, the country entered a liberalisation period. Many foreign investors came to the country. They opened new businesses that demanded competent local people. This caused a quick rotation of academic staff at the university. Some physics lecturers moved to business or took positions in university administration. Others used the new opportunity to study in other countries. Therefore, the quality of physics teaching, in particular its practical, experimental component, dramatically decreased during this period. Physics teaching become purely theoretical with almost no practical work involved. In summary, I can state that the Lao education system is currently facing many problems and challenges that are also reflected in an even more condensed form in physics education in the 3 The statement is based on discussion with the high school science teachers during the workshop on problems solving for the grade ten Physics textbook in the Vientiane, January 26-30, 2009. 6
19. II. Theoretical framework and positioning in the field In many countries laboratory work has found a central place in the teaching and learning of physics in schools and universities. It is assumed that laboratory experiences can make physics more real and illustrate the way physicists work in order to gain answers and offer insights into the physical world. Millar (2004) emphasises the important role of practical work in helping students to make links between the domain of objects and observable properties and events, and domain of ideas. However, laboratories are expensive in terms of resources and working time. Hanif, Sneddon, Ahmadi and Reid (2009) reported that declining resources at universities threaten to reduce the extent of experimental work in physics courses in the future. 2.1. Conceptualisation of the practical work in physics The concept of practical work used in this thesis was suggested by Millar, Le Maréchal and Tiberghien (1999). This concept embraces laboratory activities done by students and the teacher’s demonstrations. Practical work is any teaching and learning activity that involves at some point the students in observing or manipulating real objects and materials. Such understanding also coincides with the tradition of interpreting the meaning of practical work in the Lao educational system that includes students’ handling of equipment and materials by themselves or watching the teacher handle equipment and materials. In this thesis I also refer to the other concepts such as practical and laboratory work adapting definitions suggested by Meester and Kirscher (1995). Laboratory work contrives learning experiences in which students interact with materials to check and observe phenomena in a laboratory classroom. A practical activity is a didactic method for learning and practicing all the activities involved in carrying out practical inquiry relevant for one’s profession. According to Meester and Kirscher (1995), the interrelationship between experiments, laboratory work, and practical activities is that student experiment is a subset of laboratory work, laboratory work in turn is a subset of practical activities, which in turn is a subset of the physics education curriculum. These relationships are shown in figure 1. 7
20. Physics education curriculum Practical activity Laboratory work Students experiment Figure 1. Interrelationship between experiement, laboratory work, and practical activity in physics curriculum. Physics is, by nature, a hands-on (doing) and minds-on (thinking) inquiry- based discipline. Laboratory work is therefore normally seen as essential in the study of physics. Hanif et al. (2009) found that university students in Scotland felt that laboratory work improved their practical skills and their ability to understand theory. For more than a century, laboratory work activities have played a central and distinctive role in physics education (Hofstein & Lunetta, 2003). However, these authors remarked that for many students the lab work is mainly manipulating equipment (doing) but not manipulating ideas (thinking). In many countries, physics is included in the integrated science education curriculum component of compulsory schools. The school science laboratory is considered by education researchers as a unique resource that can enhance students’ interest in science and develop new understanding of science concepts and procedures. Experiences in a school laboratory can also help students to gain ideas about the nature of science that are crucial for their understanding of scientific knowledge (Lunetta, Hofstein & Clough, 2007). Even though laboratory activities are recognised as being essential for the teaching and learning of physics, in reality many school physics teachers have limited knowledge of how to design and run effective laboratory teaching (Sweeney & Paradis, 2004). 8
21. The American Association of Physics Teachers (AAPT, 1998) has published a list of five common goals of the introductory physics laboratory: 1. The Art of Experimentation: The introductory laboratory should engage each student in significant experiences with experimental processes, including some experience designing investigations. 2. Experimental and Analytical Skills: The laboratory should help the students develop a broad array of basic skills and tools of experimental physics and data analysis. 3. Conceptual Learning: The laboratory should help students master basic physics concepts. 4. Understanding the Basis of Knowledge in Physics: The laboratory should help students to understand the role of direct observation in physics and to distinguish between inferences based on theory and on the outcomes of experiments. 5. Developing Collaborative Learning Skills: The laboratory should help students develop collaborative learning skills that are vital to success in many lifelong endeavours. However, there is no unanimous agreement among researchers and educational authorities in different countries as to the educational goals or the best way to assess those goals for physics laboratories (Hanif et al., To evaluate the effectiveness of a laboratory task, the aims of the laboratory work have to be compared with the learning outcome. Millar, Tiberghien and Le Maréchal (2002) have suggested a detailed classification scheme to produce a profile of a laboratory work tasks. The structure of the profile is the following: A. the intended learning outcome (or learning objectives) B. the key elements of task design, including: • the cognitive structure of the task, • the level and nature of student involvement, and • the practical context of the task. The cognitive structure of the task is further divided into what the students should do with objects and what they should do with ideas. One aspect of the effectiveness of the lab work (effectiveness 1) is obtained by comparing what students are supposed to do with what they actually do. Another measure of the effectiveness (effectiveness 2) is the extent to which students’ learning matches the learning objectives. The other parts of the profile (student involvement and context) can give valuable information on which aspects of the task design that might result in effective labwork. 9
22. The quality of laboratory work is influenced by the teaching objectives, abilities and experiences of the teachers, and also depends on the students’ views about their learning (Millar et al., 2002). Millar (2004) suggests that practical work has a greater chance to be effective if a few clear focused learning objectives are identified. A strategy for scaffolding students’ thinking should be developed where the domain of ideas is heavily involved including incentivisation of students’ thinking before starting the practical task. These ideas are important to consider, for example, when doing evaluation of the effectiveness of laboratory work. 2.2. Conceptualisation of context In order to understand physics education in Laos it is important to consider it in proper context. The Latin root of the word context, contexere means ‘to weave together’ or ‘that which gives coherence to its parts’. The relations and events that actually comprise a context can only be revealed by experience. Context plays an important role in peoples’ lives. There are embedded background assumptions in everything that people do or say that are discernable only through the context. Researchers like Russell (1992) claim that context is of such importance in epistemology that there can be no inference or knowledge without it. It appears to be a basic building block of knowledge and its processing. Vygotsky (1978) considered context to be an active component of the educational process that interplays with learners’ and teachers’ activities. The individual and the context mutually constitute each other. Each person is not just an observer but also an actor. I assume that context plays an important role in constructing and re-constructing physics education and can provide a frame of reference for the analysis of curriculum values. Looking at the development of physics education from a historical perspective it is possible to note that discussions about teaching/learning physics before the 1960s were mainly focused on content and later shifted to process dimensions using a student centred approach. Recently a general agreement has been achieved that the context dimension is very important for the design and implementation of the physics curriculum. Studies of how cultural aspects influence physics education are currently growing in importance (Pak, 2004). The exploration of the cultural dimensions of the context is interesting in this thesis as Laos belongs to the Eastern cultural context while most of the studies in physics education are produced in the Western context. According to Jarvis (2009), there are profound learning differences between people from Confucian heritage countries and those from the West. The human brain is social. We are all nurtured in our own national culture. The culture of a country affects all aspects of the life and thought of the people living there. Like the presence 10
23. of the atmosphere, it is difficult for people who were born and have grown up in the midst of it to be conscious of. They take everything in their culture for granted; most of them go through their lives without realising that there can be other ways of living or doing things (Suzuki, 2001, p. 30). Jarvis (2009) stated that human cognition is not the same everywhere. In the West it is more likely to be individualistic and in the East more communitarian. A major strength of group culture is that individuals are members of a group and are bound by their unity. Within the group individuals are cared for because they are part of the group. In the West, individualism dominates over group interests. It appears that the individual is more significant than the group. The ideals of Western political and social systems based upon the individual are promoted around the world through mass-media and research communication. Woodrow (2001) talked about the imperialism of individualism. Eastern thinking and behaviour is more context and situation sensitive and more clearly related to personal feelings (to the heart). Pak (2004) suggests that traditional Eastern thought is based on connectionism and holism. No individual or unit can exist without connections. “I connect, so I am”. These cultural context characteristics, complemented and validated by my own experiences of living and working in Eastern and Western countries, are summarised in Table 1 below. Table 1. Cultural context features of learning environment in East and West East West Communitarian Individualistic Hierarchical relations within Flat organisation of group group collaboration Respect for those who know, for Freer way of expressing own opinions elders, for men, for superiors, without age and gender strong group loyalty considerations, weak group feeling Sensitive to ‘losing face’ Anyone can make mistakes Unease when working together Focus on task not on people, more with strangers tolerance for group settings Detailed discussion to reach Groups are open for debate, argument consensus, avoiding confrontation and confrontation 11
24. My experience also confirms data from the literature that gender patterns of behaviour differ between the East and the West. These include spoken and body languages, ways of making eye contact and taking the initiative, expressing opinions and presenting arguments. The cultural characteristics of learning and behaviour in East and West have certain implications for shared curriculum values in educational systems belonging to corresponding parts of the world. I suggest that it is important to bear in mind these culturally bound characteristics when analysing physics education in countries belonging to different cultural contexts and in particular when using references to the projects developed and implemented in another cultural context. 2.3. Cultural-Historical Activity Theory The fundamental premise used in this thesis is that physics education is a socially constructed phenomenon developed within a particular socio- historical context with particular types of social relations. Cultural- Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) can provide an important theoretical ground and methodological framework for the study focusing on practical activities. This theory originates from Vygotsky’s work on cultural-historical psychology (Roth and Lee, 2007). CHAT underlines the centrality of collective practical activity and the importance of socio-cultural contexts in human and social development. The cultural-historical traditions and conditions of social exchanges between people and of technological mediation determine to a great extent a person’s interaction with the environment (social and physical) and consequently his/her reflections of reality. An individual can also influence the context through externalisation of his/her ideas in words and actions. The importance of considering socio- cultural context in the process of curriculum construction in developing countries has been discussed, for example, by Popov (1997). A fundamental claim of CHAT is that human activity can be understood only if we take into consideration technical and psychological tools or mediating artefacts that mediate this activity. An important aspect of mediation pointed out by Wertsch (1990) is that mediating tools are not viewed as simply facilitating activities that would otherwise take place; instead, they are viewed as fundamentally shaping and defining the activities. This means that to understand any human activity, we need to analyse the artefacts mediating this activity. CHAT is based on an understanding of an activity (in my case, for example, a physics curriculum implementation activity) as a constantly developing complex process. The content of human activity is determined first of all by its object, and activity is oriented towards it (Leont’ev, 1981). Leont’ev often referred to constant transfers within the system “subject – 12
25. activity – object” (Stetsenko, 2005). Activity leads to changes in the object and the subject of the activity, which leads to further development of the activity. This is a kind of cyclical movement, ‘‘the world of cultural-historical experience (reified in tools and objects) and human subjectivity appear as co-evolving and existing through conjoint constant re-enactments in, and by the processes of, active transformations of the world’’ (Stetsenko, 2005). CHAT emphasises dynamic relations and constant transformations between external and internal activities. In my case, these dynamic relations could be between practical implementation of physics curriculum in the classroom and teachers’ and students’ competencies. The object of physics education (and of the students’ activities in the programme) could be knowledge and skills with which to understand the natural world or simply the acquisition of a higher education degree. The teachers’ and students’ perceptions of the object of an activity influence the teachers’ activities and the students’ motives, actions, and strategies. CHAT also requires that human activities be analysed in the context of development. The theoretical constructs presented above were helpful in defining the study and in the analysis of the results. Another theoretical perspective important for my study was that of curriculum. 2.4. Curriculum perspective A term ‘curriculum’ has several meanings and a number of different definitions of it have been offered. According to Hamilton (2003), historically, the notion of the curriculum was based on three ideas: (a) a map of knowledge, (b) a journey (course, track) across the map of knowledge, and (c) a destination. A methodology (didactics) was perceived as 'short cut' to the top of the knowledge pyramid. These elements of the curriculum are also visible in the definition of the curriculum offered by one of the leading Swedish curriculum theorists Ulf P. Lundgren who suggests that: “Curriculum is (1) A selection of contents and goals for social reproduction, i.e., a selection of what knowledge and skills are to be transmitted by education. (2) An organisation of knowledge and skills. (3) An indication of methods concerning how the selected contents are to be taught, to be sequenced and controlled, for example” (Lundgren, 1983). Behind any curriculum a set of principles can be identified according to which the selection, the organisation and the methods of knowledge and skills development are formed. For Science curriculum development it is important to consider a fundamental perception of the nature of Science as a field of human activity. Teachers also need an adequate personal understanding of the essentials of the natural sciences in order to properly implement the curriculum. I will use the description of the nature of science presented in the paper of Smith and Scharmann (1999): 13
26. The Objects and Processes of Science Study (a) Science is empirical. It is based on observation (direct and/or indirect); it seeks to find out about the natural world. Scientific claims are based on sensory data. Science deals with things that can be measured and/or counted, things that can be perceived with the five senses, with or without the assistance of various instruments. (b) Scientific claims are testable/falsifiable. Data can be obtained that support or refute each claim. (c) Scientific tests or observations are repeatable. Science values replication studies and eschews claims based on experiences that are not repeatable (e.g., revelation). Experiments or observations can be repeated by other investigators. (d) Science is tentative/fallible. Science is not a rigid, unchanging body of “right” answers. Scientific knowledge evolves over time; old theories are modified or discarded in the light of new evidence. (e) Science is self-correcting. The recognition that science is fallible and that replication of crucial studies is important, leads to the elimination of error. Values of Science (a) Science places a high value on theories that have the largest explanatory power. The greater the number of diverse observations that can be explained by a theory, the more likely it is to be accepted by the scientific community. (b) Science values predictive power. Science privileges theories that can be used to make accurate predictions about future events or the outcomes of studies not yet performed. (c) Science values fecundity. Scientists value theories that raise new questions that have not been asked before or that facilitate new ways of looking at the world. (d) Science values open-mindedness. Although we acknowledge that observation is not theory-free, good science seeks to be unbiased and objective. (e) Science values parsimony. Accurate explanations may, of course, be quite complex, but scientists prefer theories that are relatively simple, with few exceptions or apparently tangential assumptions. Scientists often speak of such theories as elegant. (f) Scientists demand logical coherence in their explanations. Scientific explanations must be able to withstand careful scrutiny of their logic and employ sound argumentation. 14
27. (g) Scientists value scepticism. No conclusions are accepted on face value, without careful analysis of the evidence supporting and refuting the claim. This view of the nature of Science has profound implications for teaching, learning and studying physics, which has direct relevance for the analyses of physics education in Laos provided in this thesis. Discussing recent curriculum developments and trends in physics education Angell, Guttersrud, Henriksen and Isnes (2004) note more attention to cultural, historical and philosophical aspects of science, more emphasis on the nature of science and science processes, and emphasis on knowledge in context. However, they also recognise that “the intended curriculum is one thing; the implemented curriculum - what goes on in the classroom - may be another, and the attained curriculum - what cognitive and affective outcome pupils are left with after schooling - yet another” (Angell, et al., 2004). This distinction between intended, implemented and attained curriculum appears to be important to consider in Lao context too. In this study some elements of curriculum frame factor theory are also taken in consideration. The content of frame factor theory is built around the idea that changes in external frames limit and regulate changes in internal processes indirectly (Lundgren, 1972). Frame factors represent external factors outside the teacher’s control that limit or rather establish the conditions for teaching. Such factors could be juridical regulations, organisational frameworks, and availability of laboratory equipment, textbooks, and other teaching aids. Lundgren (1983) stated that the used teaching aids eventually become the ‘visible’ curriculum and the governing force behind the teaching process. Use of the curriculum perspective was important to gain better understanding the factors influencing the role played by laboratory work in physics education in Laos. 15
28. III. Purpose and rationale of the 3.1. Purpose of the research The purpose of this research is to analyse the role of practical work in physics education in Laos. The following research questions were formulated 1. What attitudes do students and teachers have towards practical work in physics? 2. What is the situation with practical work in physics education curriculum in Laos? 3. What abilities and problems do students reveal when conducting physics experiments in an introductory physics university course? 4. What factors influence the organisation of physics practical work at university? 5. In what way can practical work be improved in the introductory physics course at National University of Laos? 3.2. Rationale of the research 3.2.1. Need of understanding physics education in the Lao In the Lao PDR, academic studies of physics education have been practically absent up till now. Therefore analysis of earlier research in this thesis is based on studies done in other countries, mainly in Europe and the USA. In order to improve the quality of physics education in Laos in general and the physics courses at the National University of Laos in particular, the physics lecturers and educational administrators have to gain better understanding of the situation with physics teaching and learning at all educational levels. This justifies the need for physics education studies that can stimulate discussions about what can be done to improve the current situation. Research in the field of physics education is a new, challenging and unfamiliar field for most physics lecturers in Laos. 3.2.2. The need to enforce the role of practical work in physics According to the research results of science educators in developed countries, practical work plays an important role in teaching and learning 16
29. science efficiently. Over the last thirty years, laboratory work has been gaining a central and distinctive role in science education, and science educators have suggested that there are rich benefits in learning that is built up using laboratory activities (Hofstein and Lunetta, 2003; Tiberghen, Veilard, Marechal, Buty and Millar, 2001). In particular, the laboratory is used as an important medium of instruction in introductory physics courses. In the current era, the laboratory is especially important as student centred inquiry has re-emerged as a modern teaching style in science. However, meaningful learning is possible in the laboratory only if the students are given opportunities to manipulate real equipment and materials in an environment suitable for them to construct their knowledge of phenomena and related scientific concepts (Tobin, 1990). However, laboratory work demands a significant amount of time and rather expensive equipment. Although laboratory activities are acknowledged as being fundamental to the teaching and learning of physics it is a challenging to organise them efficiently. At NUOL, many physics lecturers have limited knowledge and skills of how to design and run effective laboratories in the reality of a Lao university. These arguments justify the importance of the physics education research presented in this thesis. 17
30. IV. Methodology Before proceeding to describe the general research approach used in this thesis, I will present three main research traditions within education identified by Burkhardt and Schoenfeld (2003): so called humanities, science, and engineering approaches. According to Burkhardt and Schoenfeld (2003), the humanities approach to research is the oldest tradition in education, represented by original investigation undertaken in order to gain knowledge and understanding; scholarship; the invention and generation of ideas. This approach does not require that the assertions made be tested empirically. The test of quality is critical appraisal concerning plausibility, internal consistency and fit to prevailing wisdom. The lack of empirical support is considered as a weakness in this approach. The science approach to research is also focused on the development of better insight; of improved knowledge and understanding of reality, through the analysis of phenomena; and the building of models that explain them. It requires empirical testing and arguments built on empirical evidence. However, it does not itself generate practical solutions. The engineering approach to research is directly concerned with practical impact - understanding how the world works and helping to improve it by designing and systematically developing high-quality solutions to practical problems. It builds on insights from other research, insofar as they are available, but goes beyond them producing new or substantially improved tools, products, and processes. It combines imaginative design and empirical testing of the products and processes during development and in The research approach used in this study could be directly related to what Burkhardt and Schoenfeld (2003) describe as the science approach. It focuses on the study of practical work in physics education. A variety of empirical data collection techniques were used during the field studies in Laos. I adapt and construct analytical models to interpret and better understand empirically collected evidence. The aim was to better understand the role played by practical work in physics education in Laos rather than to suggest and develop new forms of implementing practical work for which the ‘engineering approach’ would be required. 4.1. Methods of data collection and sample of the studies The selection of appropriate study methods is always an important step in educational research. In this thesis, a qualitative approach provided the 18
31. main findings, but quantitative tools were also used in a base-line study and for collecting complementary information. The qualitative research was carried out in line with the principles of the interpretative paradigm, i.e. the focus was on examining the subjective experiences of an individual and on recognising the importance that the individual attaches to specific events (Devetak, Glažar and Vogrinc, 2010). Qualitative research seeks to understand things in context as socially located and historically developed phenomena (Silverman, 2003). This approach is used widely by educational researchers in journals publication, for example in year 2008, the Journal of Research in Science Teaching (JRST) had 35.7 percent, Science Education (SE) 63.9 percent, and International Journal of Science Education (IJSE) 44.4 percent of publications that used a qualitative approach to data collection (Devetak et al., 2010). A qualitative method relies less on numbers and statistics but more on interviews, observations, and small numbers of questionnaires, focus groups, subjective reports and case studies. It emphasises the interpretation and meaning attached to experiences (Searle, 1999). The opposite to this type of research is quantitative research, which tends to be more statistically based and makes much more use of numerical data (Denscombe, 2007, p. 248). Quantitative data collection involves measuring a variable using some numerical basis. This method was also used to complement and triangulate research findings. Working from the perspective that physics education is a socially constructed practice the research issues raised in this study dictated, as it was mentioned before, a need for using mainly a qualitative approach. A quantitative survey method was chosen to collect data for a base-line study on the current situation with laboratory work in physics and qualitative methods were later used to more deeply address my research questions. This thesis is based on three studies (see table 2). 19
32. Table 2. Summary of the studies Studies Main tools for Samples Tools for Presented data collection analysis in papers Study 1 Surveys 428+631 students Baseline-study: Questionnaires 12+26 physics I and II Attitude toward and lecturers Statistical situation with 20 high school analysis practical work in physics teachers. physics education. Study 2 Observation 5+7 groups of first CBAV and Implementation of Video recording year students CHAT III and VI laboratory work/- pendulum experiment Study 3 Interviews 23 physics CHAT and The physics education students. curriculum IV and V context and 11+3 physics analysis curriculum lecturers The first study consists of two stages: The first stage focused on attitudes towards laboratory work in physics education. The informants were 428 first year science students who had already completed one or two out of six experiment sessions in the introductory physics course, and 12 physics lecturers at Dongdok campus, NUOL in 2005. The second stage was concerned with the situation with practical work in the physics education curriculum. The informants were 631 first year science students, 26 physics lecturers from Champasak University, National University of Laos, Souphavouvong University, and two teacher training colleges in Pakse and Luoang Prabang, and 20 high school physics teachers in Vientiane capital, Pakse and Luoang Prabang provinces in 2006 and 2007. This survey study allowed an analysis of the current situation to identify further directions for the research project (i.e. served as a baseline study). The results of the study were presented in papers I and II. The second study was about the students’ collaborative activities during the pendulum experiment. The choice of the pendulum experiment for this study could be justified by the following reasons; the pendulum is a superb learning tool for science education (Newburgh, 2005). According to Gauld (2004), the simple pendulum is a physical system which is easy to make and to study and it is often used to teach investigative skills and skills of measurement. In teaching physics/science the pendulum has been broadly used both as a device to be studied and as a tool for finding out other things. 20
33. The study was conducted with first year science students enrolled on the introductory physics course at Dongdok campus, NUOL in 2008. Video recording was used as a main tool for collecting data. In addition, some students were interviewed and students’ lab reports were analysed. The results of the study were presented in papers III and VI. The last study was about contextual influences and curriculum challenges in undergraduate physics education. The informants were 14 physics lecturers and 23 physics students from the first and fourth years in the Department of Physics, NUOL in 2009. Interviews and questionnaires were used to collect data. CHAT (Cultural-Historical Activity Theory) and curriculum perspective provided the theoretical framework for the study. Results of the study were presented in papers IV and V. Data was collected through questionnaires, interviews, video-recordings, and my own ethnographic experiences of working in the Lao educational system for more than thirty years. Recently autoethnography has become a recognised methodology in the different fields of scholarship (Reed - Dabahay, 1997). I use it also to triangulate my findings collected through other methods of study. 4.1.1. Questionnaires These research instruments (questionnaires) were developed first in English and then translated into the Lao language. Four multiple choice questionnaires have been developed and used in this thesis. The first two multiple-choice questionnaires were about attitudes toward practical work in physics education. The other two multiple choice questionnaires were developed with the aim of providing an overview of the situation with practical activities in Laos. Each questionnaire was developed with one version for students and another for physics lecturers. The informants had the possibility of giving comments that explained their choice of answers after each multiple choice question. Two questions at the end were formulated in an open-ended format in order to get richer data when using the survey approach. The open-ended questions allow for the informants to answer from their own frame of reference and express their perceptions more freely (Devetak et al., 2010). The development of these four questionnaires was based on the work of Reid and Skryabina (2002) and used as a main instrument for the diagnostic base-line study. 4.1.2. Interviews In study two, data collection was complemented by semi-structured interviews. At the end of the laboratory session, two or three students in some video recorded groups were asked for interviews. The interview 21
34. questions were about their understanding of the process of measurements and the organisation of the groups. An mp3 recorder was used to record the conversations during interviews. The duration of interviews was on average about five-ten minutes each. In study three, the interviews were used as the main tool for data collection. The interview guides were gradually developed through informal discussions and validated with some colleagues at my department of physics in Laos. The interviews were conducted with the university students and physics lecturers. Face-to-face interviews took place at the Department of Physics, NUOL. Notes were taken and an mp3 recorder was used to record the conversations during interviews. Before the interviews, all the interviewees were asked to give permission for recording. The interview questions for lecturers were focused on their opinions about problems affecting the quality of teaching-learning physics at universities from a modern historical perspective. The interview questions for students were focused on the students’ choices of studying physics and problems affecting their studies. The durations of interviews were on average about twenty minutes each for lecturers, and about ten minutes each for students. All informants were aware of the anonymous treatment of their answers. 4.1.3. Video recordings Videotape recording was used as the main tool for collecting data in study two. At the beginning of each laboratory session, students that were scheduled to work with the pendulum were asked to give their permission for videotape recording. The video camera, placed on a tripod, was moved to different positions to ensure that most of the student's collaborative activities were recorded. The videotape recordings were begun when students started experimental activities. The videotape recordings were continuous with an average duration of 55 minutes for each group. They took place at ordinary laboratory sessions, but with the researcher present in the room. 4.2. Selection of informants In the first stage of the first study, the questionnaires were given to first year 4 science students from the School of Foundation Studies (SFS) and physics teachers. The number of students included was limited by an estimate of the time available for analysis of the answers. The criteria for including a class in the study were that the students should have attended 1-2 lab sessions. The remaining selection of classes was made by a convenience principle, the 4 The School of Foundation Studies (SFS) was abolished in 2009, but its curriculum is still used for first year science students at the Faculty of Science, National University of Laos (NUOL). 22
35. teacher had to approve the use of time in their lectures to answer the questionnaire and some classes were excluded due to conflicting schedules. The distribution and collection of questionnaires was done with the help of local assistants and the class teacher. The students used about fifteen minutes to respond to the questionnaire. The questionnaire for the physics teachers asked about their perceptions of the situation with laboratory work. The aim was to distribute the questionnaire to all physics teachers that had experience of being lab instructors at the introductory physics lab. I chose to give them the questionnaire in person when I met them. They usually returned their answered questionnaires the same day. In the second stage of the first study the questionnaire focused on the situation with practical work in physics education in both high schools and universities. The group of informants was therefore increased by students and teachers at two other universities, teachers at teacher training colleges and high schools. The selection of informants at the universities was made in the same way as in stage one. At the teacher training colleges the head of the college distributed the questionnaires to the teachers he selected whereas all physics teachers in the high schools that were present on the day of my visit were included. In total, seventeen groups that did pendulum lab work were videorecorded in study two. In each laboratory session there was only one group working with the pendulum experiment and they were asked for permission to be recorded. Five groups were chosen following a purposive principle (Denscombe, 2007, p. 17) for a deeper analysis presented in paper III, so that both large and small groups were represented as well as both successful groups and groups that had problems. In addition, seven groups of those students who did the pendulum experiment as their first laboratory work in the course were analysed in the study presented in the paper VI. In the third study all teachers at the Physics department at NUOL were selected for interview about problems affecting the quality of the teaching- learning process. However, 25% of teachers were not available for interview at the time for data collection. The interviewed students were selected from first, second, fourth and fifth years using a convenience sampling technique. A smaller number of teachers were interviewed about contextual changes affecting the quality of teaching-learning physics at universities. These teachers were selected by a convenience sampling technique with the proviso that they should have more than twenty years of professional experience of teaching physics. 23
36. 4.3. Methods of data analysis Study one The analysis in study one was based on the answers to the questionnaires described in 4.1.1. The percentage of the different alternatives in each multiple-choice question was calculated using simple statistical techniques. The comments of the informants to their answers to the multiple choice questions as well as the answers to the open-ended questions were summarised and categorised. No statistics were made of these categories since the response rate was low for most of the comments and open-ended questions, especially in the case of the student questionnaires. The categories were used to write an overview of explanations and opinions that can be found among the informants. Study two Data was collected by videotape recording as has been described in 4.1.3. The development of the categories for data analysis was based on the CBAV (category-based analysis of videotape) model (Niedderer et al., 2002, and Scharfenberg, Bogner and Klautke, 2007). The CBAV allows an analysis of complex situations for a rather large amount of recorded data since the analysis is made directly when viewing the video recording without the intermediate step of transcripts. The original CBAV categories were revised in this study to better comply with the Lao context and the aim of the study. This resulted in six categories for students’ activities and four categories for students’ discussions. In the analysis of the students’ activities and the lab instruction the Practical Activity Analysis Inventory (PAAI) developed by Millar (2009) was also used. This resulted in a list of activities the students were intended to do and expected learning outcomes. In the process of videotape analysis the tapes were played several times in order to get a clear picture of the students’ collaborative activities. First, the whole videotape was played continuously in order to get a general view of the students' activities and the CBAV categories were revised so that they covered all observed activities. Second, the activities and discussions of the students were categorised for each five-minute segment of the recordings. Each segment was played several times until the activities of all individual students had been marked. At the same time errors with handling equipment and faulty reasoning by each individual were also noted based on PAAI analysis of the lab instructions. The information obtained from interviewed students was also summarised. 24
37. Study three The interviews were used as a main tool for data collection in this study as has been described in the 4.1.2. An analysis of the interviews was done through the iterative process of inspecting field notes and mp3 recordings. The main themes were identified and organised in ext form with partial transcription of the audio-recordings. Some direct observations of the classroom activities at NUOL were carried out in order to validate data analysis. The findings emerged through a process of reflexive dialectical interpretation where data and theory mutually informed and transformed one another. There was no separate ethnographic study conducted as I have long experience of teaching physics at undergraduate level in Laos, so my autobiographic narratives were used as a source for triangulating the findings of the study. However, the information and data obtained from questionnaires, videotape, and interviews were in the Lao language which in turn had to be translated into the English language in the process of analysis. This process was rather time consuming and aggravated by the fact that the author is not very strong in English. 25
38. V. Main findings This chapter summarises the main findings from the three studies. The particular findings of each study can be found in the corresponding papers (see table 2). 5.1. High expectations and low satisfaction with laboratory The survey results showed that the undergraduate science students at the National University of Laos (NUOL) had strong beliefs about the importance of practical work. The majority of respondents (69 percent) expected that physics laboratory work should be interesting and enlightening. However, this opinion became more sceptical when they reflected about laboratory activities in their own physics course. Thus, half of the students felt that their understanding of the physics experiments was just fair or even poor. The students stated that the laboratory work at NUOL did not improve their understanding of physics much. Concerning the situation with practical work in schools, the survey results indicated that four out of five students had never done nor seen physics experiments before they came to university. However, an absolute majority (98 percent) indicated that they would like to learn physics theories in parallel with practical activities. The students also expected that practical work in physics would provide an important base for their future professional courses at university. The university/college and high school teachers believed, in general, that laboratory activities would help students to get greater understanding of physical concepts and processes. However, they accepted that there were many problems with the organisation of laboratory work. The laboratory activities were not as effective as they should have been (most teachers considered them fair or bad). 5.2. The educational context hinders the implementation of practical work The culture of not having laboratory work in physics education was found to be still dominant at all levels of the Lao educational system. Official curricular documents have statements prescribing teachers to do practical work in high school and university courses. Some high schools have equipment for laboratory activity, but teachers seldom use it. The majority of Lao students come to science studies at university and can even finish university without experience of practical work in physics. The teachers 26
39. accept the importance of having practical work but in reality teaching physics remains very theoretical. Usually teachers focus on discussing mathematical formulas and equations and very seldom organise practical activities. Practical work takes place only occasionally in physics classes in high schools. The primary method of instruction in Lao PDR schools continues to be frontal lecturing encouraging recitation and memorisation. There is no tradition of giving feedback on students’ assignments and laboratory reports. Teachers collected the lab reports but seldom returned them checked and corrected back to the students. Observations show that teachers spend little time advising students on matters related to practical work or to check and find-out where potential problems and faults with the equipment could lie before practical classes. In general, there was little preparation for laboratory activities by the teachers and the students. The findings show that teachers have limited experience, knowledge and skills of organising laboratory work activities. They also appear not to be confident with laboratory equipment, on the one hand, nor with the pedagogy of practical group work on the other hand. Therefore, teachers tend to neglect technically and pedagogically demanding laboratory work. In rare cases when practical physics sessions are organised, time is mainly spent on acquainting students with laboratory equipment and following step-by-step instructions. There were also too many students in each laboratory group. The problems with equipment and unclear presentations of experimental procedures in lab sheets are claimed to be major obstacles in their laboratory activities. A gap between theory and practice exists in physics education. Students reflecting on the organisation of physics studies stated that theory and practice do not go hand-in-hand, for example some experiments were done before they studied the corresponding theory. There is also no easy access to theoretical knowledge. Most physics textbooks, available in the country, are in the Thai language, which is similar to Lao. Some teachers use reference literature in English, Vietnamese, Russian or French languages. However, students have poor skills in foreign languages; thus, the language barrier represents one of the greatest challenges for effective physics education. Students’ self-studies are based mainly on lectures notes and these remain the main mediating tool of learning. 5.3. Student active collaboration during the laboratory During experiment sessions students cooperated rather actively. They were excited to use the equipment even if many of them had problems following laboratory instructions. Most of the activities were accompanied by active discussions in the workgroups. The group discussions were mainly focused 27
40. on understanding the experimental procedures and collecting data for the report rather than on the physics content. According to the videotape recordings, at the beginning of the experimental session, the students spent about 10 to 15 minutes preparing their written report for the previous experimental session by copying from each other. For about ten minutes at the end of experiment session they conversed in a leisurely fashion about other courses and issues of student life. All students were active during the whole session in the small groups, whereas several students in the larger groups did not make any contribution for large parts of the session. Mainly male students showed high engagement in doing the experiment, particularly at the beginning of the session, but if they encountered difficulties in handling equipment they left more space for female colleagues to try setting up the experiment. The factors that led to a non-successful completion of the experimental task were among other things, students’ poor skills of using measurement equipment, difficulty in understanding the laboratory instructions, faulty equipment, and too little help from the laboratory instructor. The process of setting up the equipment, taking measurements and data analysis were not presented clearly enough in the lab instructions either. So, students seemed rather confused in the videotapes when they collected data. 5.4. Unclear place of lab work in physics studies The analysis of laboratory work “Pendulum” showed that the students had not been informed by the previous theoretical sessions or by the teacher/- laboratory instructor about the role of the pendulum experiment in their physics course. The purpose of doing the pendulum lab activity (its object, in CHAT terms) remained beyond the learning or grasp of the students. The students were merely focusing on the process of conducting different Most of the groups made a lot of errors during measurements and calculations. The analysis of lab reports showed that the students calculated the value of the acceleration of gravity, g, using formulas from the literature and collected data, but the majority got values of g far from the literature value 9,8m/s2 and did not notice or reflect in the report about this. Reports contained tables with data and mathematical calculations but no discussions of the physics of the experiment, accuracy of the measurements or reflections about the trustworthiness of the results obtained. These factors mirror problems in the broader physics education context of Laos where laboratory activities are located (Paper, IV). 28
41. VI. Conclusions and discussions 6.1. Reflections about the methodology of the study In reflecting on the study and its methodology, it is clear that using a variety of methods which included questionnaires, interviews, video recording and auto-ethnographic reflections, was beneficial in terms of getting broader contextual information and deeper insights into the situation with practical work in physics education in Laos. The use of a variety of research methods also assured the possibility of breadth and depth of analysis. The initial use of a survey approach in study one that is characterised by “its combination of a commitment to a breadth of study, a focus on the snapshot at a given point in time and dependence on empirical data” (Denscombe, 2007, p. 8) allowed the identification of issues to be further explored in studies two and Auto-ethnographic narratives were used in this study to provide an additional source of information and served as a method for triangulating the findings. According to Reed-Danahay (1997), whereas the ethnographer translates a foreign culture for members of his or her own culture, the autho-ethnographer translates “home” culture for audiences of “others.” I found my long life experience as teacher in Laos useful for analysing physics education in the country partly from within. This method was also useful because of the absence of previous systematic studies about university physics education in Laos. The purposive sampling was the main way of selecting informants in the study. This method, as explained by Denscombe (2008), can be used in the ‘situations where the researcher already knows something about the specific people or events and deliberately selects particular ones because they are seen as instances that are likely to produce the most valuable data’. In term of validity, each stage of the research was carefully scrutinised with the help of supervisors, colleagues from NUOL and fellow PhD students from Umea Science Education Research Groups. Such collaboration took place from the initial research question/problem identification, towards selection of methods and theoretical framework for the studies as well as argumentation, interpretation and evaluation of the results. The use of questionnaires, interviewing and analysis of videotape recordings as tools for data collection were challenging due to my own limited previous experience of using them. However, with the good help and cooperation of the local assistants and informants each stage of the research can be considered rather successful. The experience gained in this research creates a good base for me and colleagues from NUOL with whom I collaborated to organise common 29
42. research projects in the future. The study will be used as a platform for improving experimental tasks in physics courses at NUOL and as a reference for cultivating a practical work culture in physics education in Laos in general. 6.2. Reflections on the implemented practical work It is possible to use the CHAT perspective to reflect on the content of laboratory work. The content of any human activity is determined first of all by its object (Leont’ev, 1981). It is therefore possible to state that the perceptions of the teachers and students of the object of laboratory activity define how the learning activity is organised and how the learning motives, actions, and strategies of students are shaped. In the case of the laboratory activities at NUOL, the object of the experiment (what physics needs to be learned) was not clearly defined and presented by the lab instructions or the teachers. Therefore, students’ laboratory activities became rather eclectic collections of different actions lacking unifying ideas about gaining adequate knowledge of physics that increased their understanding of certain physical phenomena. This corresponds to findings from other researchers (Hofstein & Lunetta, 2003; Abrahams & Millar, 2008) made in other cultural Rosenbatt (2005), describing the experience of using the pendulum in teaching physics, states that the study of the pendulum not only prompts the question, “What is the nature of physics?” it also proves to be an excellent way for students to come to appreciate the kind of reasoning that is at the heart of physics. Unfortunately, it is possible to state that for Lao students this level of physics reasoning was not actualised in the laboratory work. The analysis of how they handled equipment on the video recordings of lab work “Pendulum” also showed that students had difficulty in understanding how to read the values of the pendulum period on the mechanical stopwatch scale. They spent a lot of time setting the protractor to measure angles and resetting the length of the pendulum to exact values as given in the lab instruction. These apparently simple operations for university level students appeared to be rather complex actions for the Lao students. This confirms the importance of the advice from Millar (2004) that the students need to learn basic measurement competencies before engaging in more complex tasks. The whole process of doing laboratory work was extremely laborious for the students. They did not show any joy of learning doing laboratory work. Neither did the teachers reveal much enthusiasm when assisting students in their difficulties. Thus it is possible to state, when the physics department implements laboratory activities prescribed by curriculum it does not become a story of 30
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